Veterinary Elements 

A, G. HOPKINS 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 

(vrigh 
Shelf/H..!. 



Chap. . _-?_ Copyright No. 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



SCIENCE WITH PRACTICE 



Veterinary Elements 






A MANUAL FOR 



t * 



AGRICULTURAL STUDENTS AND STOCKMEN i 



BY 



ARTHUR G. HOPKINS, B. AGR., D. V. M. 

Instructor in Veterinary Science and Stock Judging 

University of Wisconsin 



WITH ILLUSTRATIONS 



MADISON, WIS. 
PUBLISHED BY THE AUTHOR 

11101 



88810 



Library of 

Two Cwies Received 
DEC 15 1900 

CopyagMa*, 
>>To-v, 10, ) Cj ©o 

SEC0MDC0PY 



0RO£R OWBWM 
DEC 18 1900 



Copyrighted, 19(K 
by a. g. Hopkins 



M. J. CANTWELL, PRINTER, MADISON, WIS. 



PREFACE. 



An experience as a student in animal husbandry in 
two agricultural colleges (Ont. AgL Col., Guelph, Can- 
ada; Iowa Agl. Col., Ames, Iowa) leads me to believe 
that, in common with the A T eterinary works written for 
stockmen, the veterinary courses were far too technical, 
thus being a drudgery to the students and calculated to 
mystify rather than enlighten, due, I believe, to the 
idea that the agricultural student or stockman should get 
veterinary knowledge in the same form as the veterinary 
student, the difference being only one of degree. The 
demands of the Short Course in Agriculture in the Uni- 
versity of Wisconsin would not allow of the use of tech- 
nical terms or big words, or even a multiplicity of 
diseases, hard to distinguish between, with their attend- 
ant treatment. This book embodies in a simple form 
the lectures as delivered to Short Course students, the 
main object of the author being to fit the stockman so 
that he "shall be to the veterinarian what the trained 
nurse is to the physician. The proper recruiting ground 
for veterinarians is from among the stockmen. To become 
so no one should attend a veterinary college having less 
than a three-year course. I have placed under contribu- 
tion Hayes' Points of the Horse and his Veterinary 
Xotes for Horseowners ; Smith's Veterinary Physiology ; 
Henry's Feeds and Feeding ; and Fleming's Veterinary 
Obstetrics ; a perusal of any of those works will repay 
the reader. 

A. G. H. 
University of Wisconsin, 

Madison, Wis. 



ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. 



The thanks of the author are due to the following parties 
for loans of halftones and electrotypes: Prof. C. S. 
Plumb, Lafayette, Ind. ; G. E. Howard & Co., pub- 
lishers of The Feather and Diseases of Poultry. Wash- 
ington, D. C. ; Hausmann & Dunn, veterinary instrument 
makers, Chicago; The Farmer's Advocate, London, 
and Winnipeg, Canada; The Horseshoer's Journal, 
Detroit, Mich.: S. A. Hoxie, Yorkville, New York, and 
the University of Wisconsin. 



ERRATA. 



"Five" should be "six", third line from bottom of 
page 18. 

" Fourth " should be "further ", sixth line on page 7. 

Omit "a ,? , bottom line, page 200. 

•• ( Surly " should be "curby " under cut, page 239. 



CONTENTS. 



PART I. — The Construction and Functions of the Animal 
Body. 

PAGE. 

Chap. I. The skeleton.— What is meant by anatomy 
and physiology. Cells and protoplasm. Quality 
of bone. The division of the skeleton into parts. 
One reason for docking. The importance of a well- 
sprung rib. The bones and joints of the limbs. 
"Tied in." Splint bones and splints. Lateral 
cartilages and side bones. The hooks or hip bones. 
The hock 1-19 

Chap. II. The muscles and their work. — Muscular and 
connective tissue. The grain of meat. Qual- 
ity of muscle. Tendons or sinews. Certain 
muscles and their work. Suspensory ligaments. 
Joint oil (synovia) and its uses 20-27 

Chap. III. The digestive system. — Prehension (seiz- 
ing) and mastication (chewing). Secretion and 
the digestive fluids, gastric juice, bile, etc. Absorp- 
tion, the taking of food into the blood and tissues. 
Mucous and serous membranes. The teeth and 
their construction. Telling the ages of horses, cat- 
tle and sheep. The stomach of the horse, pig and 
ruminant. Time required for the digestion of cer- 
tain foods. The small intestines and their work. 
The liver and bile. The pancreas and its juice...... 28-52 

Chap. IV. Excretion. — The expulsion of waste products. 
The large intestines. The kidneys and the urine. 
Reflex action. The secretions of the skin. Sweat 
aud grooming. The sebaceous secretion. Respired 
air. The organs of breathing. Drenching and 
choking. The larynx and Roaring. The lungs 
and their construction 53-63 



1 'eterivary Elements. 



Chap V. TrfE reproductive orgaxs. — The breeding of 

animals. The sexual organs of the male. The 
female reproductive organs. Heat, its signs and 
frequency. Periods of gestation. Number of 
females to the male. Age when to breed. Essen- 
tials in mating. The digestive and reproductive 
organs of poultry 64-75 

Chap. VI. The milk glands and their functions.— 
The shape of the cow's udder. The secretion of 
milk. Composition of milk. Holding up the milk. 76-85 

Chap. VII. The blood and lymphatic svstem.— Clot- 
ting and blood cells. The heart and the circulation. 
Arteries and veins. Lymphatic vessels and nodes. 
Leucocytes and their work 86-93 

Chap. VIII. The nervous svstem.— Nerves and their 
work. The brain and intelligence. The special 
senses. The organ of sight. Scums (? ) on the eyes. 
The haw. The organ of hearing. The skm and its 
color. Escutcheons in cows. Hair and feather. 
Description of white markings. The skin as an 
indication of thriftiness. Horns, chestnuts and 
ergots 94-105 

Chap. IX. The foot — its cake and shoeing.— Func- 
tions and construction of feet. The slope of the 
wall. The white line. The bars and frog. Rate 
of growth of horn. The care of the feet. .Signs of 
a good hoof. Shoeing a necessary evil. Lifting a 
front foot. Forging and interfering. Corns and 
contracted feet. Securing a kicker for shoeing. 
Location of points of animals 10'i— liiO 

Chap. X. Holding a post-mortem. — Necessary tools 
and antiseptics. Methods to be followed. Parts 
calling for careful scrutiny. Significance of cheesi- 
ness in a lymph node 121-124 

Chap. XI. Simple earm medicines. — Farm medicines 
and their classification. The medicine chest. Dose 
table according to age. Some convenient measures. 
Drugs, their action and uses. Poultices. Poisons 
and their antidotes 125-137 



Table of Contents. vii 

PAGE. 

Chap. XII. Mode of giving medicines.— Channels for 
entrance of medicines into the body. Giving medi- 
cines to horses. Drenching cattle and sheep and 
its dangers. Steaming animals. The application 
of blisters 138-143 

PART II. — Diseases, Their Prevention and Treatment. 

Chap. XIII. Nursing of sick animals.— Nursing and the 
sick stall. Ventilation and light. Floors and bed- 
ding. Clothing and warmth. Taking pulse rate 
and temperatures. The state of the breathing, the 
feces, urine, skin, etc. The recruiting ground for 
veterinarians. Watering animals. Grooming and 
feeding patients. The use of mustard, bandaging, 
washing and clipping. What is meant by inflam- 
mation. Signs and locations of the inflammatory 
process 145-158 

Chap. XIV. Breeding and some of its effects. — Signs 
of pregnancy. Treatment before parturition. Prep- 
arations for delivery. A natural delivery. The 
duration of labor. Skilled help necessary in dif- 
ficult deliveries. Attentions to the newborn. Re- 
tention and removal of the afterbirth. Putting out 
the womb (casting the withers). Garget and its 
treatment. Milk fever, its prevention and treat- 
ment 159-174 

Chap. XV. Diseases of young stock and sterility. — 
The early life of lambs. Scours. Navel-ill or joint 
disease of foals. - Barrenness or lack of breeding- 
powers in males. Why cows and mares won't 
breed. Artificial breeding with the capsule, a re- 
liable, safe and cheap method 175-180 

Chap. XVI. The common farm operations.— Restraining, 
throwing and tying animals for operations. The 
principles of the treatment of wounds. How 
wounds are healed. General treatment of wounds. 
Cleanliness and antiseptics essentials for rapid heal- 
ing. Broken bones or fractures. How fractures 
are repaired.. Dehorning and tapping. Castration 
and spaying. Bleeding and docking 181-201 



viii Veterinary Elements. 

page;. 
Chap. XVII. Diseases due to mistakes in feeding. — 

Colics and their significance. Bloating in sheep 
and cattle. Choking and its treatment. Founder 
(laminitis),its causes and treatment. Lymphangitis 
(big leg) and its prevention. Idleness and its ser- 
ious result, Azoturia. The logical end of excessive 
hay feeding, Heaves. Water trouble in rams and 
wethers. Sore sheaths in cattle and sheep 202-216 

Chap. XVIII. Diseases of the teeth.— Teething and its 
results. Lanipas and its significance. Money paid 
to the quack or travelling horse-dentist is thrown 
away. A profitable investment. Wolf teeth not a 
cause of eye troubles. No age free from tooth 
troubles. Signs of faulty teeth. Cribbing and 
windsucking. Black teeth in young pigs. Dis- 
cbarges from the nostrils and their significance... 217-221 

Chap. XIX. Foot and LIMB TROUBLES. — The locating of 
lameness. The spavin test. Sweeny or shoulder- 
slip. Sore shoulders and collar galls. The location 
and treatment of splints. Scratches. Ringbone, 
heredity a cause. Sidebones an affection of heavy 
horses. Foot-rot in sheep. Thrush and its pre- 
vention. Coffin joint lameness, navicular disease. 
Shoe pricks and corns. Stifle out, one result of 
breeding from weak-stifled horses. Bone and bog- 
spavins. Curbs and curby hocks. Shoeboils, string- 
halt and capped elbows 222-241 

Chap. XX. External and internal parasites of 
animals. — Sheep scab and its suppression. Lice 
and ringworm. Some summer pests of sheep, mag- 
gots and grub, in the head. The hornfly and 
Avarbles. Poultry lice. Summer sores of horses. 
Bots. The treatment of pin worms. Symptoms of 
worms in colts. The July and August lamb de- 
stroyer, the stomach worm. Tapeworms and the 
pumpkin seed decoction .' 242-252 

Chap. XXI. Contagious diseases and their suppres- 
sion. — The bacillus of Koch and consumption. 
Tuberculosis a contagious and not an hereditary dis- 



Table of Contents. ix 

PAGE. 

ease. Bang's method of suppression. A reason 
for meat inspection. Glanders, a serious menace 
to horse and Man. Preventive inoculation and 
Blackleg. No cure for Hog cholera. Lockjaw a re- 
sult of wound infection. Texas fever and inocula- 
tion. Anthrax. Lumpy jaw and its cure. The 
contagious eye disease of cattle. The stockman's 
scourge. Contagious abortion. Distemper of colts. 
Calf cholera or dysentery. Cowpox. Canker mouth 
of young pigs 253-269 

Chap. XXII. Disinfection and miscellaneous dis- 
eases. — Methods of disinfecting stables. Chemicals 
to be used. Thumps and rheumatism in pigs. 
Chapped teats. Obstructions in the teats. Warts. 
A few diseases of poultry, causes and cure 270-274 

Chap. XXIII. Examination of a horse for sound- 
ness. — The test for the wind. Interpretation of 
tooth changes. Looking at the foot. A bad sign 
in saddlers. The detection of curbs, dropped hip 
and ringbones. Comparing the hocks for signs of 
spavin. Some disqualifications from breeding... 275-279 

Index , 280-286 



Veterinary Elements* 

PART i. 

The Construction and Functions of the Animal Body. 



CHAPTER I. 
THE SKELETON. 

Natural Science Study Essential. Iu First Principles of 
Agriculture we are told that agriculture may be divided 
into four general branches, one of which is Animal 
Industry (Husbandry). The same authority, when 
classifying the personal factors upon which success as an 
agriculturist depends, insists upon a knowledge of the 
natural sciences, not the least important of which is 
Animal knowledge (Zoology). Such a deep study is 
zoology that specialists have divided it into branches, an 
elementary study of two of which (physiology and 
pathology) will constitute the subject matter of this book. 

Physiology, and its relative, anatomy, have to do with 
the functions and construction of organs of the animal 
body : Pathology, in the broad sense used here, has to 
do with mal- nutrition and disease, and their prevention. 
It may be accepted that, in order to be successful as a 
stockman, a knowledge however elementary of the anat- 
omy and physiology of live stock is essential, as on such 
knowledge is based not only the preservation of health 
1 



2 Veterinary Elements. 

by avoiding overwork or idleness of various organs, but 
also the prevention of disease by preventing the inroad 
of germs. The possession of a knowledge of the con- 
struction of an animal (anatomy) is a valuable aid to 
enable us to classify that animal as to its fitness for the 
dairy or the block, the carriage or the lorry. 

The life unit — the cell. The animal body is a col- 
lection of small masses of protoplasm known as cells. 
Each cell has the property of nutrition (taking in food 
and using it to build up the body) and reproduction 
(propagating itself) and may be capable of motion. 
Protoplasm is made up of the elements carbon, nitrogen, 
oxygen, hydrogen, sulphur. Cells collected together for 
special purposes form a tissue, e. g. ; Bone, muscle, nerve, 
vascular, etc. Through the union of cells we get nerves 
and capillaries, and from cell excretions we have built up 
connective tissues, bones and cartilage. 

Definition of Anatomy. The study of the form and 
structure (conformation) of the animal body. 

There are several kinds of anatomy, referring espe- 
cially to the methods used and the object sought, e. g. : 

Comparative Anatomy refers to the study of form and 
structure of not only the horse, but the cow, pig, dog, 
sheep, poultry and Man. 

Histology is another division of anatomy, the study of 
which calls for the use of the microscope and consists of 
the study of tissues, such as skin, liver, bone, lung, etc. 
If the study is of diseased tissue, it is known as Patho- 
logical or Morbid Anatomy. 

Surgical Anatomy is of value to the surgeon and does 
not concern the agricultural student. 



The Skeleton. 3 

For the agriculturist an elementary knowledge of com- 
parative anatomy is essential, because owing to the differ- 
ences in the construction of the various animals, such 
animals require different treatment in the way of feeding, 
watering, shoeing, and during sickness. By the study 
of anatomy we are enabled to map out the animal, and 
thus can locate a diseased part more readily. 

The work of the anatomist may be compared to that of 
the architect, because in both cases the study of the 
framework is the basis for the study of the superstructure. 

The animal may be briefly analyzed as a bony skele- 
ton, covered outside by muscles and the skin, and con- 
taining inside that skeleton the various organs, such as 
the heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, stomach, intestines, 
reproductive organs and the nervous system. 

The Skeleton. The framework is generally called the 
skeleton. It is made up principally of bones. 

Bone is a hard, yellowish white, insensitive body made 
up of earthy and animal matter. The earthy matter is 
made up mainly of the following materials: Phosphate of 
lime, carbonate of lime, phosphate of magnesia, and solu- 
ble salts. The earthy and animal matters are in the 
healthy mature animal properly balanced, in the young 
animal the animal matter is in excess, thus accounting 
for the small number of breaks (fractures) in young 
animals, and also for the rapidity with which such break- 
ages are repaired. In old animals the earthy matter is in 
excess, consequently breakages (fractures) are more 
frequent and repair is slower than in the young animal. 

Bone is the hardest of all the animal tissues, due to 
the presence of the earthy matter before mentioned, its 



4 Veterinary Elements. 

elasticity (the power of bending to a limited degree and 
of sustaining shocks) is due to the animal matter in it. 
Living bone is elastic, bluish white and insensitive. (It 
must not be forgotten that life exists in all the several 
parts as much as it does in the whole body, and that 
Death, or cessation of life, occurs when the functions of 
the various parts have ceased, and thus caused stoppage 
of the work of the body as a whole. ) Bones not only 
form a framework, but, owing to the fact that muscles 
are attached to them, also become levers and have to do 
with the movements of the animal. 

Quality of bone and its indications. The quality of the 
bone in an animal is of great importance, as a rule the 
purer the breeding the better the quality of the bone ; e. 
g., the bones of the Thoroughbred are, according to their 
size, more compact, heavier, stronger than those of the 
Cart horse. The bones of the Cart horse are expanded 
as it were to allow more surface for the attachment of 
muscles. The question of the quality and quantity of 
bone has become a vital one in live stock ; in the beef 
animal a certain fineness of bone is desirable, as being 
one of the indications of small offal ; on the other hand, 
an excessive lightness of bone is a defect in some breeds 
of hogs, rendering them incapable of carrying their 
carcass to market. 

If we saw a bone in two we find it is made up of a 
hard and soft portion ; in the soft portion a number of 
little holes are seen, which give the cutting (or section) 
the appearance of a section of a cane. These little holes 
(canals) are for the passage of the blood vessels whose 
function is to nourish the bone. One can see how that 



The Skeleton. 5 

too many canals would render the bone soft and spongy. 
The outside of bones is covered by a tough material, a 
skin known as the periosteum, which can be stripped 
off ; it is very strong and sensitive and contains blood 
vessels which serve to nourish the bone beneath. In the 
central part of the bone (medullary canal) is found the 
marrow, which by some scientists is held to be the birth- 
place of the blood plates (corpuscles). 

Bone is developed from temporary cartilage or gristle. 

The uses of (functions) bones are : 1. To bear weight ; 
2. To resist the effects of concussion ; 3. To act as levers. 
Their fitness for the first two duties depends on the qual- 
ity (texture), substance (size) and their arrangement. 
The soil on which an animal is raised and the feed on 
which it is fed influences the bone. The drier the soil 
and the harder the food the better the quality of the bone. 
The more open (porous) bone is, the greater the liability 
to bony deposits, examples of which are splints. The 
hoofs indicate the quality of the bone, e. g. , flat feet and 
soft horn mean poor quality of bone. Among horsemen, 
the expression, ' ' Flat bone, ' ' is often heard, such, how- 
ever, refers to the shape of the whole leg, the desirable 
form being razor-like, the bone forms the heavy part of 
the razor, while the tendons (muscles) at the back of the 
leg form the fine edge ; if there is an excess of loose 
tissue behind, the leg looks round, feels soft and the 
horseman utters the dictum : ' ' The bone is round and 
spongy ! ' ' Large muscles mean large bones on account 
of the greater are required for attachment sites. The 
more bones are exposed to concussion the denser and 
stronger they should be. It is almost impossible to obtain 



6 Veterinary Elements. 

bone of great volume and at the same time of the finest 
quality. The number of bones varies according to the 
animal, in the horse 191, ox and sheep 196, pig 270, etc., 
the sacrum being reckoned as a single bone, the bones 
of the tail (coccyx) averaging 16 for the horse, 18 for the 
ox; and 22 for the pig (Chauveau). 

The present appearance of the various breeds of live 
stock is due to the process of evolution and to the efforts 
of man. For example, let us take the horse; back 
thousands of years ago (Eocene period) the ancestor of 
the horse was only the size of a fox and had four toes. 
Today specimens of horses can be seen 17 hands high, 
weighing 2,000 pounds and only one toe, as seen when 
the structure of the foot is taken up ; in fact, the horse 
is now classed as belonging to the single-toed class (Un- 
gulata); during the Miocene period it was the size of a 
sheep and had three toes, while in the Pliocene period, 
nearer the present time, it had become as large as an ass, 
and two of the toes were disappearing, until down to the 
present time we have the horse, with the small splint 
bones to represent two toes possessed at one time by its 
ancestors. The efforts of man are tending to a reduction 
of offal and a higher development of flesh production in 
the meat-producing animals. The gradual disappearance 
of wolf teeth and the lengthening of the space (diastema) 
between the front and back teeth are all quoted as evi- 
dence of evolution in the horse. 

To render the study of the skeleton more easy it is 
divided into regions, each being taken up separately, 
the regions are : The head (skull), the neck (cervical), 
the back (dorsal), the loins (lumbar), the croup (sacral), 
the tail (coccygeal) and the limbs (appendicular). 



The Skeleton. 7 

The bones entering into the formation of these regions 
vary in shape, hence are divided in three classes: long, 
flat and irregular. All bones have at various spots 
(usually at the end) somewhat smooth polished spaces 
known as articular surfaces ; when the articular surfaces 
of two bones are in contact a joint is formed. A fourth 
provision to ensure the surfaces of the two bones being 
kept in contact is the band-like structure made of white 
fibrous, connective tissue known as a Ligament. A liga- 
ment may vary somewhat in form according to its posi- 
tion, but its functions are the same, viz. : 1. Giving 
support (example the lateral ligaments); 2. Confining 
the joint oil (synovia) by means of the capsular ligament. 
Two other forms of ligaments exist, namely, check and 
suspensory, but as they do not enter into the construction 
of joints, they are considered along with the muscles. 

The Head. The bones of this region are quite numerous, 
36 in all, and as their remembrance is of little practical 
value to the agriculturist they will not be considered 
separately. In the colt the boundaries of each bone are 
easily made out and the bones separated, as the animal 
grows older the bones grow together (ossify). The 
bones of the head are quite light and thin and by their 
arrangement form hollow spaces (excluding the mouth 
and nose) which communicate more or less freely, and 
are known as sinuses ; in the skull is also the brain cav- 
ity. If we dehorn a cow we notice that the horns are 
more or less hollow and that those cavities extend into 
the head, therefore one can at once see that u Hollow - 
horn, so-called," is not a diseased condition of the horns, 
but is perfectly natural. In the cavities of the nose are 



8 Veterinary Elements. 

some very light bones which are of importance in their 
relation to the act of breathing. These bones are cov- 
ered with a very delicate mucous membrane, containing 
a great number of small blood vessels, the air as it passes 
over this membrane becomes warmed before being taken 
in by the lungs. The teeth, although properly classed 
with the bones of the head, will be treated of when the 
digestive system is being taken up. 

The Neck. Behind and below the head we find the 
spinal (vertebral) column, made up of a number of sec- 
tions, each called a vertabrse. These vertebrae have a 
hollow passage (spinal canal) through their centers, this 
canal houses the spinal cord, thus protecting it against 
injury. These vertebra} are so constructed as to allow 
of movements between them, varying in degree accord- 
ing to their location. Considerable motion is necessary 
and is provided for between the vertebrae of the neck, 
such enables the head and neck to be placed in different 
positions. The acts of raising and lowering, turning 
sidewise are accomplished by the action of powerful 
muscles attached to these bony sections. The site of the 
junction of the bones of the head and neck is the region 
of the poll, and it is these bones that are sometimes 
affected in severe cases of Poll Evil. The bony sections 
in the neck (cervical) region, number seven, and are 
somewhat alike, the two first (atlas and axis) showing 
the more marked differences. 

The Back. Passing along the back (dorsal region) we 
find that the vertebrae forming this region are shorter 
and more numerous, being 18 to 19 in number. They 
resemble the bones of the neck, save that their upper 



The Skeleton. 9 

surfaces are marked by sharp projections or spines. 
The highest of the spines (those of vertebrae IsTos. 4, 5, 
6) together with the muscles, etc., of the part form the 
region of the withers — hence the disease known as fistula 
of the withers (fistulous withers) gives the location of 
the trouble. These projecting spines are very well 
marked in the dairy type of cow, projecting as they 
often do in such animals above the tops of the shoulder 
blades, along with which they tend to give the desirable 
wedge shape when viewed from above. In the beef type 
of animal the spines are not as prominent, the muscular 
or fleshy covering of the parts being more abundant. In 
the better bred horse, the withers are quite fine as com- 
pared with the coarser bred specimen. The sections of 
the back bone give attachment to strong muscles and 
ligaments. One ligament of peculiar character is noticed 
in the horse, it extends from the vertebrae of the back to 
those of the neck and to the head, and as a result of the 
support it gives, the horse is enabled to keep the head on 
a higher level than the rest of the body, consequently we 
should expect a crosswise section of it to cause the head 
to fall to ground, such sometimes happens as a result of 
attempts at surgery by quacks in the treatment of Poll 
Evil (fistula of the poll). The bony sections of the back 
also form joints (articulate) with the heads of ribs, one 
pair of which are allotted to each of the vertebrae of this 
region (dorsal). 

The Loins. Passing back still further we come to the 
bones of the loins (lumbar region), six in number. 
These sections of the backbone should be strong, strength 
here being; a desirable trait in all animals. A slight dif- 



10 Veterinary Elements. 

ference in the loin between the dairy and beef type is 
noticed, the loin of the former tending to widen behind, 
in the latter an even width throughout is desired. These 
bones not only have spines above but also on each side, 
all being covered by powerful muscles, which muscular 
covering is one of the most valued parts in meat-pro- 
ducing animals, contributing as it does to form what is 
dubbed the high-priced cuts. 

The Croup (pelvis or rump). Still further along the 
backbone are the bones of the croup (sacrum) which are 
more or less joined (ossified) together, according to the 
type of animal so varies the croup, in light horses, such 
as Cleveland Bays, a long, level croup is found, while in 
drafters a shorter, more drooping croup is desired ; 
extending along the croup bone are muscles which give 
the rump its shape. In the dairy cow a heavily muscled 
rump is not desired, in fact, advanced thinkers along 
dairy lines hold that a high prominent croup (dubbed 
pelvic arch) is very desirable as indicative of plenty of 
room in the parts below, such ideas yet need data to 
render them acceptable. 

The Tail. The last region of the spinal column is that 
known as the tail (coccyx), made up of 13 to 20 seg- 
ments. The spinal canal cannot be said to go beyond 
the sacrum or the first few segments of the tail. A 
tendency exists among people to remove segments of the 
tail or the entire member, a proceeding which can only 
be justified in few cases, such as in sheep, when its 
removal is an aid to cleanliness, and occasionally in horses 
that have the habit of switching. The ribs and breast 
bone (sternum) are attached together in a greater or less 



The Skeleton. 11 

degree. The ribs gradually lengthen from the first to the 
ninth, thence becoming shorter to the 18th. In the horse 
the ribs are narrower, closer together and rounder than in 
cattle, in the latter the ribs are comparatively flat and 
broad. The desirable form of rib in the horse is the 
well sprung one, giving the body the shape known as the 
barrel. In cattle the spring of rib varies with the type, 
in fact, it may be stated that those animals used for 
meat-producing purposes should have a well sprung rib, 
the spring being right from the back, in fact, the upper 
part of the ribs aid in forming the great width of back 
so much desired. In the dairy cow the ribs take a some- 
what different direction, the arch of the ribs resembling 
more nearly that of a hip roof than that of a barrel. It 
is very important that the ribs (5 and 6) just behind the 
front limbs should be well sprung so as to give plenty of 
lung room. This applies to all domesticated animals of 
any type or of any breed. The width of chest of the 
dairy cow is taken behind the shoulders about one foot 
below the withers. The slab-sided animal, so-called, 
due to lack of spring of rib, is generally a notoriously 
bad doer. The upper end of each rib forms joints with 
two vertebrae, the ribs are thus capable of being lifted 
up and outwards during the act of breathing. The 
factors determining the spring of ribs are : Heredity and 
lung development, for with good lung development in 
the young animal, bones which at that time are impres- 
sionable, so to speak, may and will be given direction. 
Heredity, of course, is the supreme factor of the two, 
and if good conformation is wanted only animals with 
such conformation can be used as breeders with much 



12 Veterinary Elements. 

chance of success. The numbers of pairs of ribs are in 
the horse 18, cow 13, sheep 13, pig 14. 

The expression — well-ribbed-up — refers to the close- 
ness of the last rib to the hips, such a conformation is 
desired in all animals with the exception of the dairy 
cow. The reasons that it is so desired are several, in 
horses looseness of the coupling is often an indication of 
poor digestive and staying powers, and in the beef ani- 
mals, the tissues forming that location, the upper flank, 
are tough, gristly, in fact, consequently not of great value 
as meat. The breastbone (sternum) receives the attach- 
ments of the first 8 ribs (true ribs) and resembles a 
boat's keel ; if small and narrow, the floor of the chest 
will also be narrow ; the front part of the breast bone 
and its coverings form the brisket. In dairy cattle we 
find it sharp, in other animals smooth, wide and well 
covered with muscles. The backbone, ribs, breast bone 
and the diaphragm (a large muscle separating the intes- 
tinal cavity from the lung cavity) constitute the bounda- 
ries of the chest cavity. 

The Limbs. In the fore limbs there are the bones of 
the shoulder (scapula), the arm (humerus), forearm 
(radius and ulna), of the knee (the carpus, made up of 
8 small bones), the cannon and splint bones (large and 
two small metacarpals), the pastern (os suffraginis and 
corona), the pedal, coffin and shuttle bones (os pedis 
and os naviculare), the last two being contained in the 
hoof. The long bones of the limbs are often said to have 
a shaft and two extremities, the latter, the expanded 
ends which enter into and form the various joints ; as a 
result certain motions take place between bones, to 



The Skeleton. 13 

describe such movements the terms flexion and extension 
are used, thus a limb is said to be flexed when bent, 
extended when straightened out. 

The shoulder blade is flat and triangular in shape, 
with a spine on its outer surface, each side of the spine 
in the depressions thus formed are lodged muscles, which 
assist in supporting the shoulder joint. The develop- 
ment of these muscles is important when we consider the 
wearing properties of the shoulder and its liability to 
collar galls, etc. The position or slope of the shoulder 
blade is of interest to note, because the slope of this 
bone is indicative, to a certain extent, of the positions 
taken by the bones below, e. g., in the light horses in 
which a great deal of action is required, there must be a 
sloping shoulder, such a condition increasing the elasticity 
of the gait and thus diminishes concussion. On the 
other hand, in the draft horse a more upright shoulder 
is preferred, so as to bring a good bearing surface into 
the collar, consequently we notice in the heavy horse a 
more upright shoulder and pasterns than in the light 
horse. 

In the dairy cow the slope of the shoulder blades are 
towards one another at their tops, thus giving one of the 
wedges of the triple-wedge desired by dairymen. The 
lower end of the shoulder blade, together with the upper 
end of the arm, forms a shallow ball and socket joint, 
one in which there is considerable play. This joint, like 
all the others, is surrounded by what is known as the 
capsular ligament, from which is secreted the joint oil 
(synovia), a strawy yellow, clear, somewhat oily liquid, 
which is for the purpose, practically, of oiling the 



14 Veterinary Elements. 

joints. The bone of the arm (humerus) is a long bone, 
sloping downwards and backwards. It is very strong 
and gives attachment to powerful muscles. The slope of 
this bone varies in light and heavy horses, in the latter 
being nearly horizontal, as the score card terms it, ' ' arm 
thrown well back ' ' ; with the bones below it forms the 
elbow joint, which is of the hinge variety, several power- 
ful ligaments tend to hold these bones together in place. 
The bones of the forearm (radius and ulna) differ con- 
siderably in animals, especially with regard to the devel- 
opment of the ulna. In horses the ulna is small and 
fastened to the radius, while in cattle, sheep, swine and 
Man, it is about equal in size to the radius and is free, 
in fact, the development of the ulna seems to be directly 
proportional to the number of fingers or toes possessed. 
The bones of the forearm are long bones. At the upper 
end of the ulna is the point or cap of the elbow and the 
location of i i shoeboil. ' ' The bone of the forearm and the 
upper row of bones in the knee form a hinge joint, the 
usual ligaments, such as the capillar and the supporting 
or binding ligaments being present. The knee or carpus 
is made up of eight bones arranged in two rows ; one bone, 
the trapesium, is situated at the back of the knee, and if 
well developed may give the leg the appearance of 
' ' being tied in " ; this bone is usually well developed in 
well bred horses, it gives a leverage to some of the 
muscles that have to do with the flexing of the knee. A 
ligament stretches from the trapesium across the back of 
the joint and thus forms a groove through which plays a 
tendon (flexor pedis perforans). 



The Skeleton. 15 

If the bones or tendons immediately below the knee 
are lacking in size (substance) the limb is said to be 
"tied in" ! 

The joints of the knee belong to the hinge variety, the 
extent of movement getting less from above down. If, 
as the result of inflammation of the parts, bony deposits 
are thrown out and the joint movement limited or 
arrested, the condition is known as knee-spavin. The 
cannon bone has attached to it on its hinder surface two 
small bones commonly called splint bones. These splint 
bones often terminate at their lower ends in little knobs, 
which are apt to be mistaken by the novice for splints. 
Bony deposits thrown out between the cannon bone and 
a splint bone constitute splints. The knobs are normal, 
the splint is abnormal. The cannon articulates with the 
long pastern bone below and thus forms the fetlock joint, 
which is of the hinge variety, behind this joint are two 
rounded bones, the sesamoids. The long pastern bone 
forms a hinge joint, the pastern joint, with the os corona. 
This bone, the short pastern bone, also articulates with 
the bone of the foot, os jpedis. The coffin bone is semi- 
circular in outline, somewhat the shape of the hoof ; 
at its back extremities are the wings, so-called, to each 
of which is attached a half moon-shaped piece of gristle 
(cartilage), known as the lateral cartilages. The round, 
upper borders of these cartilages can be felt quite readily 
at the upper and back part of the hoof, they should be 
movable, if not they have become bony (ossified) and 
are henceforth known as sidebones; in some horses the 
cartilages are naturally firmer than in others, such cases 
must not be mistaken for side bones. 



16 Veterinary Elements. 

In ruminants (animals that chew the cud, e. g., cattle 
and sheep) the camion bone is split at the lower end and 
the pastern bones are just doubled in number, the bones 
of the foot, however, comprise two separate halves, the 
space between forming the cleft. It is in the region of 
this cleft that trouble occurs in the feet of cattle and 
sheep, rarely, however in hogs, due to particles of dirt 
and gravel which irritate the parts, or else the result of 
infection. 

The hind limb. It is worth while noticing the difference 
in the manner of attachment of the front and hind limbs to 
the trunk. The fore limbs are only attached by muscles, 
in fact, the body may be considered as slung between the 
front limbs ; in the hind limbs a bony attachment exists 
between the trunk and limbs. This attachment is 
between the bones of the croup and one of the pelvic 
bones (ilium. ) The pelvis, the large bony ring at the exit 
from the abdominal cavity, is formed by the croup 
(sacrum) and the os innominata, a pair of bones, each of 
which is made up of three bones. The three bones have 
technical names which we shall have to use in default of 
others; they are : Ilium, ischium and pubis. The ilium 
is flat and is triangular in outline, two of its angles, the 
outer and inner, can readily be seen in thin animals. 
The outer angle is known as the hip bone or hooks in 
dairy cattle, in which type a certain prominence is 
desired, the opposite condition is desired in animals of 
the meat type. Sometimes the result of an accident, 
due to carelessness, etc., such as crowding through nar- 
row doorways, this hip point is broken, and the animal 
is then said to be down in the hi}) ; the lesion can be 



The Skeleton. 17 

noticed by standing squarely behind the animal. The 
ischium, the next largest bone of the trio, situated 
behind the ilium, is somewhat similar in shape ; only 
one angle is seen and that forms the point of the buttock 
or pin bone; sometimes this protuberance is broken off, 
to detect it a side view is necessary. The two ischii are 
united to form the back (posterior) part of the floor of 
the pelvic cavity, in sheep and cattle a notch is formed 
at their points of union. The pubis is a flat bone and 
with its fellow forms the fore (anterior) part of the pelvic 
floor ; on the pubis rests the bladder. The ischii and 
pubes of cattle, sheep, swine, etc. , are slow to grow 
together, consequently there is considerable allowance 
for widening of the pelvic cavity, a condition of great 
service to these animals when bringing forth their young ; 
in mature horses these bones are fused together, no play 
is possible in that direction. 

All three bones unite at one point to form a deep 
socket, known as the acetabulum, which receives the 
head of the thigh bone (femur). This joint is a deep 
ball and socket with the usual ligaments to support it, 
etc., in the horse (all solipeds) a ligament is present 
which is not found in cattle, hence we account for the 
side kicks from cattle, mule. 

The hip joint is quite prominent in dairy breeds and is 
known as the thurl. The thigh bone (femur) is very 
strong, slopes down and forward, and at its lower end is 
enlarged to form two joint surfaces, one of which is 
pulley-like, the inner lip of the pulley surface being the 
larger. On . the pulley surface plays, the stifle bone 
(patella or knee cap of man), owing to the conformation 



18 Veterinary Elements. 

of the part the stifle may be displaced outward, but not 
inward ; this displacement depends greatly on the state 
of the lateral ligaments. The bone of the stifle receives 
a number of ligaments and also muscles. The bones of 
the lower thigh (tibia and fibula) articulate with the 
other joint surface of the femur, the motion is that of a 
hinge. The largest of these bones (tibia) is very bare 
of muscular covering on the inner side, an extra thick 
covering of periosteum is there present, however ; this 
bone is sometimes broken by a kick, the breakage (frac- 
ture) may not be noticed, the ends being held in place 
by the strong periosteum, unless the animal is put to 
work, when the ends become displaced and as a result 
acute lameness, necessitating slaughter of the animal. 
The fibula is small in the horse, in cattle and sheep is 
represented by a fibrous (gristly) cord, in the pig it 
extends the entire length of the tibia. 

The expanded end of the bone of the lower thigh 
(tibia) meets the two large bones of the hock (tarsus, 
ankle in man) and forms with this pulley surface proba- 
bly the most important joint, in animals, from the horse 
man's stand point, owing to the great amount of work 
done and to the peculiar arrangement of the bones. It 
is in the region of the hock that such diseases as curb, 
spavin, bone and bog are found. This joint is known as 
the true hock joint and is of the hinge variety, when 
motion takes place the tendency is to turn the foot out- 
wards in the direction of the pulley surface. The hock 
is composed of five bones, arranged in rows, the upper 
row containing the two main bones, os calcis and astrag- 
ulus. The os calcis (the heel bone of man) has attached 



The Skeleton. 19 

to its posterior surface a ligament which, when sprained 
and enlarged, constitutes a curb, a condition resulting 
from the conformation, (curby or sickle hocks), or 
the work performed (in stud males). One of the 
hock bones, the cuboid, situated on the outer side of 
the hock, just below the calcis, may be rough, and 
in such cases may cause the animal to be credited 
with a spavin or curb, in all such cases the hocks 
should be carefully compared and coarseness of the bone 
not mistaken for diseased conditions. The joints of the 
hinge variety between the lower rows of hock bones are 
not as important, as the motion allowed is not nearly so 
extensive as in the true hock joint. Below the hock, 
the bones are arranged in a similar manner to those in 
the fore limb. Abnormal bony enlargements are some- 
times present on the pastern, and are then known as 
ringbones; splints are rarely present on the hind cannons. 



CHAPTEE II. 

THE MUSCLES AND THEIR WORK. 

The bony skeleton is clothed with several varieties of 
tissue, of which the muscles are of primary importance 
in the study of conformation and the fitness of the ani- 
mal for food purposes. Another tissue is connective 
tissue, of a strong fibrous nature, which proceeds inward 
from the skin, running between portions of the muscles, 
and thus gives coarseness and the grain to meat (mus- 
cular tissue). The less exposed a muscle is the smaller 
the amount of connective tissue. Connective tissue also 
forms ligaments and tendons (the gristly parts of mus- 
cles), ensheathes bones, cartilage (gristle) and nerves. 
If connective tissue is present in excessive quantities it 
renders a muscle hard to define, is the cause of the 
so-called round bone of horsemen ; therefore, we can 
make several valuable deductions with regard to the 
animal, as follows : 1. As the thickness of the skin is a 
measure of the amount of connective tissue, the thicker 
the hide, other things being equal, the more connective 
tissue in and about the muscle ; these observations can 
be made by any practical man. 2. As its action is nil 
(passive), the more connective tissue entering into a mus- 
cle the slower the movement of that muscle; hence, as a 
result, a poorly defined muscle, as for example seen 
below the knee or hock, and a thick skin may be taken 
to imply deficiency in speed. In meat-producing ani- 



The Muscles and Their Work. 21 

nials, the quality is interfered with if the connective 
tissue is in excess, the coarseness, lack of pliability of 
the skin, being indications. Meat (muscle) showing 
several colors, rainbow-like, is always tough, due to the 
presence of connective tissue which, being mixed in with 
the muscular tissue, gives the peculiar play of colors. 
In all live stock, excellence of breeding shows in the 
quality of the skin, hence we have sound reasons for the 
use of well bred sires and dams in preference to the 
mongrel, whether the progeny is for draft purposes or 
for food. Muscles constitute the lean of meat and are 
made up of fine fibres. Movement takes place by the 
shortening (contraction) of those fibres. The strength 
of a muscle is proportionate to its thickness, other things 
being equal ; it has been estimated that a muscle con- 
tracts about two-thirds of its length, therefore, the stride 
depends on the length of the muscle ; as length of mus- 
cle is accompanied by length of bone, we can often judge 
the former by the latter. In the race horse we desire 
the greatest possible ' length of muscle with sufficient 
strength for carrying weight. As a thin muscle will 
contract as quickly as a thick one of the same length, 
therefore, the larger muscle would be a disadvantage, 
owing to the increased weight of bone and muscle, and 
consequently greater friction, together with increased 
slowness to nervous stimuli. Muscles are divided into 
fleshy and tendinous portions, the latter are tough, hard, 
fibrous cords (sinews), being for the purpose of econo- 
mizing space and for attachment to bones. Muscles are 
related to the body and limbs according to their actions 
and locations. The amount of force exhibited by a 



22 Veterinary Elements. 

muscle is proportional to the degree of stimulation given 
by its nerves, therefore, the more energetic in action, the 
stronger, other things being equal. 

When speaking of muscles, the fixed end is the origin, 
the part (or end) it moves, the insertion. Some of the 
more important muscles are here taken up and their 
actions, origins and insertions mentioned, those of the 
limbs being of especial interest, as dealing with locomo- 
tion. The first muscle seen after the removal of the skin 
is |the one that twitches the skin, the fly-shaker, pan- 
niculus carnosus, its boundaries are of no particular 
interest, its actions are, assisting as it is said to, in the 
expulsion of air from the lungs when highly developed, 
seen in the race horse. 

When the foreleg is advanced, the shoulder joint is 
extended and elbow joint flexed, when drawn back the 
opposite takes place, due to the action of a powerful 
muscle (pectoralis magnus) attached at one end to the 
front of the shoulder blade, at the other to the head of 
the bone of the fore arm, just below the level of the elbow 
joint. Another powerful muscle (flexor brachii) attached 
to the point of the shoulder blade and point of the elbow 
flexes (bends) the shoulder joint and straightens (extends) 
the elbow joint. There are other minor muscles that 
assist in these movements. Three muscles (flexor meta- 
carpi externus, niedius and internus) bend the knee, 
they originate on the back of the arm iust above the 
elbow joint and are inserted to the bone at the back of 
the knee (trapezium) and the splint bones. The two 
muscles (extensor pedis and extensor suffraginis), which 
straighten the fetlock, pastern and coffin joints, run down 



The Muscles and Their Work. 23 

the front of the forearm, one originates at the head of 
the bone of the forearm and is inserted on the front sur- 
face of the upper pastern bone ; the other commences on 
the bone of the arm just above the elbow joint and ends 
on the upper and front part of the coffin bone. Those 
muscles which bend the fetlock, pastern and coffin joints 
and aid in bending the knee, originate on the back part 
of the forearm ; a short distance above the knee they 
become tendinous (sinew-like) and form what are known 
as the ' l back tendons, ' ' or, as they are sometimes called, 
the cords or sinews; at the back of the knee they pass 
through a sheath formed by the trapezium and binding 
(annular) ligament, thence down the back of the cannon 
bone. The one lying in front (the flexor pedis perfo- 
rans) lies just behind the suspensory ligament, goes over 
the sesamoids, little round bones at the back of the fet- 
lock, down the back of the pastern until it passes over 
the shuttle bone (os naviculare), which has a smooth, 
pulley-like surface, and is then inserted (fastened) into 
the under side of the coffin bone. It is of interest to 
know that this muscle is re-inforced just below the knee 
by what is known as the check ligament. When dis- 
cussing the joints, structures called ligaments were men- 
tioned and their functions described; in connection with 
the muscular tissues, there are what are known as sus- 
pensory and check ligaments, whose offices are to render 
assistance in a greater or less degree to muscles. The 
suspensory ligaments are very powerful, and if the back 
tendons were severed would prevent the fetlock sinking 
to the ground. The suspensory ligament lies right behind 
the cannon and between the two splint bones, it originates 



24 Veterinary Elements. 

at the lower row of knee bones and passes to the fetlock, 
a short distance above which it divides into two bands, 
which are inserted to the sesamoids, parts of the liga- 
ment, however, pass down and forward and unite with 
the muscle (extensor pedis) that extends the foot. It is 
a question whether this ligament is capable of stretching, 
in dogs, cats and pigs its place is taken by a muscle, in 
man by two muscles. The check ligament (carpal stay) 
is a continuation of a powerful ligament which fills in 
the spaces at the back of the knee joint, as stated ; it 
assists one of the back tendons. The rear-most tendon 
(flexor pedis perforatus) lies just behind the perforans 
and underneath the skin, and receives a re-inforcing 
ligament above the knee. This muscle proceeds down 
the back of the limb and forms a sheath at the fetlock, 
through which the tendon of the perforans passes and is 
inserted on the short pastern bone. The suspensory 
ligament and two tendons should be hard and well defined 
in the horse ; to be so, there must not be a great amount 
of connective tissue, the nervous tone must be good, and 
there must be no inflammation or its products in the 
parts. Capt. Hayes, in " Points of the Horse," says the 
factors in producing strong tissues, such as clean, hard 
muscles, are, Heredity, hard food ( " oats, not corn"), 
exercise, a dry, warm climate and Eastern blood. 
The first three factors are well under the control 
of every farmer ; knowledge of such factors and their 
intelligent use render breeding operations more success- 
ful and, consequently, more satisfactory. Some very 
large and very powerful muscles (Latissimus dorsi, ser- 
ratus posticus, longissimus dorsi) extend along the back 



The Muscles and Their Work. 25 

and loins, they contribute to the breathing movements of 
the animal and extend the spine ; the valuable meat cuts 
of the back and loins are contributed largely by these 
muscles ; in fact, if an imaginary line be drawn from the 
shoulder point to the point of the buttock, nearly all of 
the valuable cuts will be above that line. 

Four powerful muscles, the pectorals and the serrati, 
forming the muscles of the armpits, are the means by 
which the body is slung between the fore legs. The 
muscles of the hind limbs are of great importance and 
some of them of immense size ; in the meat type of ani- 
mal especially great muscular development in this region 
is essential, as these muscles contribute largely to the 
high priced cuts. 

The hip or croup is extended by the great rump mus- 
cle (gluteus maximus), which also assists in rearing, and 
by some muscles which lie at the back of the thigh bone 
(femur). The great rump muscle is attached to the 
upper portion of the pelvis (Ilium) and runs forward as 
far as the last rib, its insertion being on the head of the 
thigh bone. The muscles at the back of the thigh origi- 
nate on the under surface of the pelvis from behind the 
hip joint to the point of the buttock and are inserted 
principally to the lower part of the thigh bone or the 
upper portion of the bone below (the tibia). The hip 
is flexed by muscles (psoae) that have their origin on 
the under surface of the last dorsal vertebrae and ribs 
and the loin; they also tend to arch the back and bring 
the animal to its feet after rearing; the insertions are on 
the thigh bone. Other muscles (triceps adductors femoris 
sartorius and pectineus) which are attached to the under 



26 Veterinarg Elements. 

surface of the pelvis in front of the hip joint, the thigh, 
stifle and lower thigh also flex the hip. Some of these 
muscles also draw the hind limbs outward (abduct) some 
inwards (adduct). 

The stifle is extended by one muscle (rectus femoris) 
which has its origin on the under surface of the pelvis 
just in front of the hip joint, its insertion being to the 
stifle. This muscle also flexes the hip. The stifle is 
flexed chiefly by a muscle (biceps rotator tibialis) 
attached to the pelvis behind the hip joint and to the 
lower thigh (tibia) or gaskin. 

The hock joint is straightened (extended) by the mus- 
cles of the gaskin (gastrocnemii) which have their origin 
on the lower part of the thigh bone, one has its insertion 
to the point of the hock, the other to the bones of the 
pastern and foot; the latter when extending the hock 
flexes the fetlock and joints below. Its principal use is as 
a mechanical brace during standing and thus preserves 
the balance; these two muscles form the hamstring. 

Flexion of this important joint is performed by power- 
ful muscles (flexor metatarsi, extensor pedis and peron- 
eus). The peroneus originates on the fibula, joins the 
extensor pedis below the hock, and is of interest because 
of the radical operation performed on it with the idea of 
curing stringhalt ; it is really an accessory (helper) 
muscle to the extensor pedis. The flexor metatarsi orig- 
inates at the lower end of the thigh bone and terminates 
at the lower portion of the hock by four insertions, one 
of which is prolonged over the site of bone spavin, and 
in surgical work for the relief of such a condition is often 
severed. The extensor pedis originates on the side of 



The Muscles and Their Work. 27 

the lower end of the thigh bone and is attached to the 
three bones below the fetlock, consequently the joints 
below the hock are extended by this muscle. An 
acquaintance with the origins, insertions and actions of 
the limb muscles is of especial value as an aid to detect 
and locate lameness. The apparatus for performing 
movements in animals is as is seen composed of bones, 
ligaments and muscles, which are brought into a more 
or less intimate relation, we might term it frictional 
relation. Nature has made provision to reduce the fric- 
tion and its consequences to a minimum, by what is 
known as joint oil (synovia). It has already been stated 
that this fluid is present at the joints, being secreted 
from the lining of the capsular ligament, besides these 
locations it is also found in little bags or sacs (bursse) of 
shapes varying with the location, placed between a ten- 
don and bone or between two tendons. From various 
causes, resulting in over- stimulation of the secreting 
membrane, an overplus of this fluid is secreted, thus 
accounting for swellings in various parts, of which bog- 
spavin and wind puffs are familiar illustrations. 



CHAPTEE III. 

THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM. 

An acquaintance with the arrangement and methods 
of working of the digestive organs is essential to the 
feeder of fat stock, the feeder of dairy stock and the per- 
son who feeds for work. It has been found that the 
higher the organization the more complicated is the 
digestive process. In order to render the process easily 
understood four divisions or stages are outlined, as fol- 
lows : 

1. Prehension and Mastication, referring to the seizing 
and chewing of food, the preparatory stage calling into 
employment the lips, tongue, teeth and glands of the 
part. 

2. Secretion, the process of saturation of food mate- 
rials with the digestive fluids (gastric juice, bile, pan- 
creatic juice). 

3. Absorption, referring to the taking into the system 
of the prepared materials obtained from the food, employ- 
ing such tissues as the blood and lymphatics. 

4. Excretion, the process of throwing out, by means 
of the excrements (feces and urine), sweat, and breathed 
air, the waste material, that part of the food from which 
the nourishment has been extracted. It does not follow 
that this latter is always the case, e. g., the profit obtained 
by letting shoats follow steers, showing that a large part 
of the food was not used by the steers. 



The Digestive System. 29 

Mucous and Serous Membranes. Widely differing as 
these membranes do in their location and functions, for 
our purposes we may consider them somewhat alike in 
construction. Mucous membranes may be said to line 
open cavities or tubes, such as the nose, mouth, the entire 
digestive tract, the breathing (respiratory tract), and 
the genito-urinary tract (containing the organs of repro- 
duction and the kidneys, bladder, urethra, etc.) The 
main point of interest regarding the mucous membranes 
probably relate to that part of the intestinal tract in 
which absorption takes place, and under which heading 
the forms taken by the mucous membrane, for short often 
written m. in., will be described. 

Serous membranes, on the other hand, consist of two 
layers, and line closed cavities, parts of the animal body 
not communicating with the outside world. While ser- 
ous membranes have a wide distribution in the body, 
yet in that distribution they lose their identity, becom- 
ing known according to their location, e. g., the serous 
membrane of the abdominal cavity is termed the peri- 
toneum, in it are suspended the intestines ; the inner 
layer of the peritoneum is in one part named the omen- 
tum, at another the mesentery. The serous membrane 
of the lung cavity is the pleura, that of the heart the 
pericardium. As a result of inflamation of serous mem- 
branes, fluid is thrown out between the layers, e.g., water 
in the chest (hydrothorax) after pleurisy. The serous 
membranes should always be examined in post mortems 
of suspected tuberculous animals. 

The digestive tract is practically a long hollow tube 
running from one end of the body to the other, having 



30 Veterinary Elements. 

sacs or recesses at intervals. This tube is made up 
largely of muscular fibers and nerves, a fact to remem- 
ber in the treatment of such diseases as stoppage of the 
bowels from over feeding, with the resultant paralysis of 
the muscular fibres of the bowel, consequently the admin- 
istration of purgatives in such cases is not advisable until 
the paralyzed condition is overcome; sometimes these 
muscular fibres are cramped, illustrations of which are 
seen in spasmodic colic. The lining of the tube is a del- 
icate tissue known as mucous membrane, which is made 
up of layers of cells in which are blood vessels, nerves 
and glands, the surface of this mucous membrane is 
smooth; although it may be more or less roughened, as 
seen and felt on the tongue of animals; in the small intes- 
tines this membrane is arranged in little finger-like pro- 
jections known as villi. 

I. Prehension and Mastication and the organs employed. 
The seizing of food and conveying of that food to the 
mouth is performed in various ways by the different ani- 
mals, the horse uses the upper lip and front teeth for 
this purpose, the cow uses the tongue only, thus we 
understand the fallacy of letting cattle follow sheep on 
pasture land; sheep use a combination of tongue and lip, 
the hog uses both upper and lower portions of the snout, 
they both graze and root. The mouth is the entrance to 
the digestive tract, it contains the tongue, teeth, and re- 
ceives the secretions of the salivary glands; it is guarded 
by the lips, formed of circular muscles and sensitive hairs. 
Animals that chew the cud (ruminants) lack the front 
upper row (the incisors) of teeth, the place of which is 
taken by a firm pad of gristle (cartilage), it is also inter- 



The Digestive System. 31 

esting to note that the teeth of such animals are loosely 
imbedded in the sockets. The roof of the mouth is 
formed by what is known as the hard palate, mucous 
membrane thrown into cross folds. The presence of an 
artery is made known if one lances just behind the third 
bar, an operation often performed by blacksmiths and 
others for Lampas. The cheeks are made up of muscles 
which are exerted to keep the food between the teeth; 
on the inside, close to the fourth grinder (molar) a little 
elevation is felt, which is the point of entrance of the 
duct carrying the saliva from the parotid gland. The 
tongue is the organ of taste, is freely movable and in 
some animals can be extended quite a distance; it is 
made up of muscular tissue, a fact which must be remem- 
bered when seizing this organ, or sprain of the muscular 
fibres will result and the animal may be thus rendered 
unable to use the organ as it should; the mucous mem- 
brane which covers the muscular portion is in the horse 
quite smooth, in the cow and sheep quite rough, due to 
its arrangement in little tufts called papillae. The tongue 
in swine and sheep is comparatively small. Irritant 
medicines must not be administered undiluted or the 
mucous membrane will be damaged. At the back let 
down from the roof of the mouth is a double fold of 
mucous membrane known as the soft palate; its size in the 
horse bars the exit of breathed air by the mouth, hence the 
horse breathes only through the nostrils. This soft palate 
does not hinder breathing through the mouth in cattle and 
sheep. The mechanism of drinking is controlled by the 
organs mentioned, in the young animal the lips are 
placed around the teat, a vacuum is formed and the milk 



32 Veterinary Elements. 

is forced into the mouth by the pressure of the air, such 
a process constitutes the act of sucking. In the mature 
animal, pumping is the method employed, the lips are 
immersed below the water, a small opening is made 
between them, the tongue withdrawn and a vacuum 
formed, the air pressure forcing the water into the 
mouth. 

The Teeth. In the mouth cavity those important or- 
gans, the teeth, are found. It has been said, and with a 
great deal of truth, "no foot, no horse," the substitution 
of tooth for foot would make another adage as significant 
as the old one and just as true, whether referred to the 
horse, ox or sheep, as on the condition of the teeth 
depends the health and consequent ability to do work or 
make gains. Every horse, and for that matter, the 
other animals, have two sets of teeth, the milk or colt 
(temporary) teeth, which are shed at different periods 
in the early life of the animal, smaller and whiter than 
the permanent, which are intended to last the animal 
the balance of its life. In sheep the front (incisors) 
permanents tend to fall out at from 8 to 10 years, in cat- 
tle rarely so, while in horses the front teeth remain, the 
grinders (molars) are, however, quite often diseased, 
necessitating their removal. Although a simple looking 
object a tooth is composed of bony materials, the hardest 
in the animal body. The visible part of the tooth (the 
crown) is formed of dentine (an ivory-like substance) 
which is covered by a layer more or less thick of a white, 
still harder substance, the enamel. The invisible part 
of the tooth (the fang) is made up of a softer material 
than the other two, called crusta petrosa. The wearing 



The Digestive System. 33 

surface (upper) is known as the table of the tooth, and 
it is on the tables of the front teeth (incisors) that the 
various marks are seen which are treated of when dis- 
cussing the age of a horse. As to kinds of teeth there 
are two, classifying them according to their construc- 
tion, viz.: Simple, e. g., the nippers or incisors, and the 
tusks or tushes-canines; Compound, the grinders (molars). 
The teeth will be considered according to their location, 
hence three sets— those at the front, nippers or incisors, 
the tushes or canines, and the back teeth, known as the 
grinders or molars. 

The incisor teeth in horses, cattle and sheep are made 
use of by the stockman to determine the age of the ani- 
mal, by taking into consideration the time of appearance 
of those teeth, the amount of wear shown on their tables 
and by their shape. 

On the tables of the incisors the enamel forms a depres- 
sion known as the cup or cusp, which is filled with the 
tooth cement, generally discolored by the food, thus ac- 
counting for the black mark found in the cup. When an 
incisor has been in use for some time its table (wearing 
surface) presents two irregular rings of enamel, an outer 
and an inner one. The inner ring surrounds the cup 
(cusp); the dental star (so-called) is a spot on the tables 
found at certain periods between the cup and the front 
edge of the tooth. The tusks or canines are not always 
present, rarely in the mare, in fact these teeth are con- 
sidered as a mark of masculinity. In cattle and sheep 
there are no upper incisors, as has been mentioned; the 
incisor teeth in cattle especially are quite loose in their 
sockets. 
3 



34 Veterinary Elements. 

The molars (grinders) are somewhat square looking at 
the table surface; while the temporary or milk molars 
are only twelve in number, there are twenty-four perma- 
nent molars. The upper ones are set a little to the out- 
side of the lower ones, due to the slightly greater width 
of the upper jaw. The surfaces of these molars do not 
form two horizontal surfaces, but two sloping ones, the 
outer edge of the upper molars coming lower down than 
the inner edge of the same teeth, whereas the lower row 
of molars have the inner edge higher, this fact has to be 
remembered in the operation of dressing (floating) the 
teeth. The formula below gives the number and arrange- 
ment of the teeth in the adult of the different animals: 

Incisors. Canines. Molars. Total. 

6 2 12 

Horse 6 2 12 . 40 

12 

Ox 8 12 32 

12 

Sheep 8 12 32 

6 2 14 

Pig 6 2 14 44 

The tushes of little pigs are sometimes black and gen- 
erally sharp, though it is doubtful if the blackened con- 
dition affects their health, yet it is however advisable to 
break off their tushes, as in fighting for the teat they are 
very apt to tear it, and cause soreness of the udder, with 
a consequent disinclination of the sow to let the pigs 
suckle her. 

Telling the Age. Foals at birth have four incisors, the 
middle ones, and twelve molars : at six months four lat- 



The Digestive System. 



35 



erals appear; at six to nine months the corners show. 
The permanent incisors appear at three, four and five 
respectively, the tusks (canines) from the fourth to the 
fifth year; thus a horse is said to have a full mouth (a 
complete set) at five years. Soon after that time changes 
can be seen to have taken place in the incisors as follows: 
at six years the black mark disappears from the central 
incisors of the lower row, at seven from the lower later- 
als, at eight from the corner teeth of the lower row. 
Beyond that age ihe signs are not as reliable, yet gener- 
ally the black marks disappear from the upper centrals 
at nine, the laterals at ten, and from the upper corners 
at eleven. A general idea of the age after eight years 
may be obtained by noting the shape of the teeth, owing 
to the fact that as the animal grows older the incisor 
teeth become narrower from side to side and deeper from 
front to back, assuming gradually and consecutively 
square, triangular and round appearances. The follow- 
ing diagram represents the time at which the incisors 
appear and will be a help in determining the ages of 
the horse, ox and sheep: 

HORSE. 

, 3 -:• -, 

1 — 3 years. 
2—4 years. 
3 — 5 years. 




OX AND SHEEP. 



Ox: 



1 — 1^ years 
2 — 2\ years 
3 — 2f years 
4 — 3 years 
; 1 — 1 year 
2 — 2 years 
3 — 3 years 
4 — 4 years 




36 Veterinarg Elements. 

In horned cattle the age is calculated quite reliably by 
the wrinkles on the horns, the first one appearing at two 
years, the others at intervals of one year. Evidences of 
teething, such as shedding of the milk teeth are well 
marked in the colt, by the presence of the crowns (so- 
called) of the milk teeth in the feed box, quite often by 
a loss of condition and disinclination to eat. Sheep and 
cattle rarely show marked symptoms of tooth troubles, 
the latter may, however, if affected with Lumpy Jaw 
(Actinomycosis). Owing to the fact that the molars 
(grinders) are the most important teeth in the horse, a 
yearly examination by a competent veterinarian of the 
mouths of all horses owned will result in a saving of feed 
and better health in those animals. 

The various changes in the teeth on which are based 
the determination of the age of the animal have been 
described, the methods of making such an examination 
follows: the methods described may be varied from, 
but as they are workmanlike are adopted, being the 
results of experience. 

In the horse — The examiner steps to the off side of 
the horse and facing ahead with the left hand placed on 
the cheekstrap of the bridle or halter, the right hand 
parts the lips, thus allowing the general shape of the 
teeth to be seen, if, as a result of the examination, the 
animal appears to be over five years, the tables of the 
teeth are looked at. The left hand lets go of the bridle, 
the two first fingers are run in the space between the 
front and back teeth, the thumb being employed to de- 
press the lower lip, a gentle downward pressure is applied 
and the tables are then in view; it may be necessary with 



The Digestive System. 37 

the right hand to elevate the upper lip; in order to do so 
the examiner swings round in front of, and faces the 
horse. It is advisable in all cases when examining a 
strange animal to be on the alert, so as to avoid bites or 
kicks and blows from the front feet; the trained horseman 
is always on the alert. 

The examination of the sheep's mouth calls for a pre- 
cise method, so as to limit the struggling of the animal 
and allow of an accurate result being obtained. The 
sheep being caught, the examiner stands on the left side 
of the animal, and while applying pressure with the 
right knee to the left shoulder, by means of the right 
hand and arm, draws the head towards the right side; 
the right elbow and forearm fit in tightly to the shoulder 
and neck of the sheep. The fingers now come into play, 
the forefinger (index) of the left hand being placed in 
the horizontal position, and therefore parallel to the up- 
per lip, gently elevates it, the thumb of the right hand 
at the same moment, also in the horizontal position, 
gently lowers the under lip, thus the teeth are brought 
well in the view and the animal being held fast cannot 
struggle. Skill in handling animals for various pur- 
poses is shown by the avoidance of any rough or harsh 
measures. 

The apparatus for masticating food have been de- 
scribed, the processes will now be under discussion. 

Mastication is the process of grinding food in the mouth, 
thus fitting the food for the action of the stomach juices. 
All grain eating animals need this process to break the 
envelopes of the grain so that the digestive juices may 
act; crushing (chopping) the grain renders the work of 



38 Veterinary Elements. 

mastication easier. It has been stated that the muscles 
of the cheeks, the teeth, tongue, lips, jaws and saliva all 
have to do with the preparation of the food. The mouth 
is opened by depressing (lowering) the lower jaw, closed 
by raising it, the latter action calling for considerable 
force, hence the reason for the strong muscles forming 
the cheeks. The jaw motion is sideways in horses, cat- 
tle and sheep, and is changed from side to side at will. 
The tongue, lips and cheeks keep the food between the 
teeth. The food is moistened by the saliva (spittle), a 
fluid alkaline in reaction, containing a ferment-jrtyalin, 
which acts on the starch of the food, converting it into 
sugar. This secretion (saliva) is the result of the work 
of certain glands, namely, the xmrotid, a grape-like 
structure situated just below the ears, with a duct run- 
ning into the mouth at the fourth molar; submaxillary, 
smaller glands lying between the jaws, often enlarged in 
colt Distemper (strangles) and Glanders, the secretion 
being emptied into the mouth at the barbs just under the 
point of the tongue; sublingals, a number of very small 
glands, as their name reveals, lie under the tongue. The 
parotid gland is active only on the side on which chew- 
ing is taking place. In the horse these glands work only 
during mastication; in cattle they are secreting continu- 
ally. Sight and odor of the food do not stimulate the 
glands. 

Quantity of saliva secreted. The amount of saliva se- 
creted in twenty-four hours is amazing. In the horse 
about one hundred pints per hour when eating hay, one- 
third less if oats are the food, just one-half the quantity 
when on green fodder, and one-third if on roots; there- 



The Digestive System. 39 

fore, it is readily seen that the quantity varies with 
amount of water in the feed, in fact on the dryness of 
the food, not on the starch to be acted upon. Its action 
is more mechanical (i. e., for the purpose of mixing, 
softening, etc.) than chemical. The food is thus ren- 
dered easy of shaping into a ball (bolus), in which shape 
it is passed backward and swallowed. This fluid also 
aids in tasting foods, and keeps the mouth and teeth 
clean and moist; great quantities of it descend into the 
first stomachs of cattle and sheep, the fluid being secreted 
as soon as food is eaten or masticated. 

Swallowing (deglutition) is quite a complicated pro- 
cess, although seemingly simple. It may be divided into 
three stages, during the first of which the food is under 
the control of the will and the food is passed back into 
the pharynx; in the second stage through the pharynx 
it is then beyond the control of the will, being only 
brought back by coughing; in the third stage the bolus is 
carried over the larynx into the gullet, and by the mus- 
cular contractions of the walls of this tube is finally 
ejected into the stomach. As the latter stages of swal- 
lowing are involuntary the process known as reflex action 
is gone through as follows: A nervous stimulus is sent 
to the brain, the result of the presence of the bolus, and 
a message is sent back from the brain to the muscles of 
the pharynx and gullet directing the swallowing of the 
bolus. A horse may swallow thirty boli in fifteen min- 
utes if very hungry, from ten to twelve if the edge has 
been taken off his appetite. Immediately behind the 
mouth is the cavity already spoken of as the pharynx; 
this cavity is common to the digestive and respiratory 



40 Veterinary Elements. 

(breathing) tracts; it has several openings into it besides 
those already mentioned, namely, those of the eustachian 
tubes, which communicate with the ear, and those of the 
guttural pouches, hollow cavities peculiar to the horse, 
found at the back of the pharynx; these cavities are 
sometimes filled with pus, and when thus may cause suf- 
focation. The pharynx opens behind into the gullet 
(esophagus), a long musculo- membranous tube, the en- 
trance to which is located just above and behind the 
larynx. This tube extends to the stomach, and its path 
can be seen in the neck during the passage of food or 
medicine; it is lined with a delicate membrane, and 
although containing a considerable number of muscular 
fibres, and therefore elastic is not meant for, nor is it 
improved by, the forcible passing of solid objects, such 
as broom handles or whipstocks. At its entrance into 
the stomach of the horse the mucous membrane is in 
folds, forming a valve, thus preventing the return of food 
(vomiting, etc.) to the mouth; in cattle and sheep its en- 
trance is, however, funnel-shaped, a condition favorable 
to the return of food to the mouth. 

The Stomach. The digestive tract has been described 
as a tube with sacs or enlargements, the first of which is 
the stomach. In the horse and pig it is a single sac; in 
cattle and sheep an organ with four compartments, viz: 
the paunch or rumen, situated in the left flank of the ani- 
mal, the honeycomb or reticulum, the manyplies or omasum, 
the true stomach or abomasum, sometimes termed the rennet. 
The stomach of the horse resembles a bent tube in shape, 
with the openings close together on the upper border; 
it is lined by mucous membrane which shows a well- 



The Digestive Si/stem. 41 

marked dividing line and as a result two varieties of 
mucous membrane, the one a continuation from the gullet 
with no secreting glands in it, the other, or villous por- 
tion, the true digestive coat containing the gastric glands. 

It is a good idea to consider the first three divisions of 
the ruminant stomach as a widening out of the gullet. 
The capacity of a horse's stomach is about 3 to 3^ gal- 
lons, that of the paunch (first stomach) of a cow 45 to 60 
gallons, of a sheep' s paunch 10 to 15 gallons, and of a 
pig's stomach 1J to 2 gallons. 

The process of rumination, although carried out with 
the assistance of the first three stomachs, is not a pure 
-digestive act, but merely preparatory, hence we consider 
it as part of stage one. In some animals the food when 
swallowed is finely divided enough to be acted upon by 
the gastric juice in the true stomach, in others it has to 
be mixed and churned up with the mouth saliva in order 
to soften it before its return to the mouth for remastica- 
tion. In birds digestion starts at once, although the 
food may not be finely ground. The process of returning 
the food to the mouth for a second chewing, known as 
rumination, is peculiar to the many-stomached herbivora 
(grass eaters). This process differs from vomiting, in 
that it is partly under the control of the will, in fact the 
one is abnormal (unnatural), the other normal (natural). 
If rumination stops for any length of time the cause 
should be looked for; as has been pointed out, the pro- 
cess consists of the passage up and down the gullet of 
food from the stomach; therefore, the giving of an ani- 
mal a cud (so-called) is a ridiculous practice, and one 
that cannot be expected to restore the natural movements 
which are in abeyance. 



42 Veterinary Elements. 

The reason given for animals ruminating is that when 
in the wild state food had to be taken in rapidly and 
chewed at leisure in a place of safety. The process is 
stopped by fright or any unexpected happening, such as 
the presence of strangers; such being the case, as can be 
confirmed by any observing person, it behooves the at- 
tendant to avoid harsh treatment or sudden noisy move- 
ments among cattle and sheep. The calf at early age 
craves bulky food in order to ruminate, in fact, outside 
of the necessity for bulky food with the idea of balancing 
the ration, it seems necessary to distend the paunch so 
that its walls may be stimulated to action; the other 
extreme must be avoided, however, because the ruminat- 
ing process is stopped if the paunch is overloaded, due 
to paralysis of the muscular fibres of that organ. Over- 
distension with gas, a common occurrence from feeding 
on unmatured grasses and fodders, such as rape and 
clover with the dew on, will also stop the process; it is 
also stopped during the period of heat. The longer 
rumination is stopped the harder it is to start again, simi- 
lar to other paralytic conditions, a result also of the dry- 
ing out and impaction of the food lying in the paunch in 
an inert condition. A plentiful supply of water is nec- 
essary to assist in softening the food, which usually con- 
tains more or less woody fibre. The gullet opens into 
the paunch which communicates with the honeycomb, or 
water bag, as it is often called, due to its fluid contents; 
these two compartments communicate with the manyplies 
(omasum), and it by a small opening into the true stom- 
ach (abomasum). The honeycomb is situated in front 
and below the paunch, hence it becomes the water bag. 



The Digestive System. 43 

The contents of the manyplies are drier than that of 
the others, judging from the arrangement of its leaves 
and the character of its contents the food undergoes a 
squeezing process by which excess of water, which might 
unduly dilute the digesting fluids of the true (fourth) 
stomach, is forced out. 

The process of rumination. After the food has been 
chewed (masticated) for the first time, it passes down 
into the paunch and honeycomb, while fluids and finely 
chewed particles go on to the manyplies and even to the 
true stomach. The opening between the second and third 
compartments is small. Food in the paunch and honey- 
comb is slowly churned and thus thoroughly mixed with 
saliva, mucus and water, thus being rendered fit for the 
second chewing; probably the starchy matters of the food 
are changed to sugar, the right conditions, temperature 
and moisture being present in these organs. The com- 
partment from which the food enters the gullet is not 
certain; from the construction of the parts it is likely 
from the honeycomb. 1 As soon as the bolus of food 
re-enters the mouth a sound is heard which indicates 
the downward passage of the fluid which lubricated its 
upward passage; in cattle the various movements in the 
gullet can be seen along its course down the neck. The 
necessity of an abundant supply of water or watery food 
is at once understood when the act of rumination is 
studied. It has been calculated that about seven hours 
are necessary for rumination, hence continual activity or 

ias a result of postmortems made by the author, this view is held to ba 
correct, judged mainly from the character of the contents of the gullet and 
honeycomb at the time of death, the gullet generally being found full of 
chewed material. 



44 Veterinary Elements. 

work are not favorable to the ruminating process. The 
position assumed by the ruminant when resting is char- 
acteristic. The saliva is essential to the chewing of the 
cud. When the food is completely remasticated it is 
swallowed, passed to the manyplies, and from there to 
the fourth or true stomach, to be acted upon by the gas- 
tric juices. 

Vomiting in horses and other single-stomached herbi- 
vora is a rare occurrence, and when it does happen in 
the former is a grave symptom. The openings into the 
stomachs of these animals are close together, and as the 
gullet is closed by a sphincter muscle, if pressure is 
applied, the contents escape into the intestines. In the 
horse the stomach is never in contact with the abdominal 
muscles, consequently the necessary pressure cannot nat- 
urally be applied. In ruminants the contents of the true 
stomach do not return to the mouth. 

2. Secretion. Having discussed the preparatory 
stages through which the food is put, and the organs 
employed in the process, under the second heading — 
secretion — those organs and their secretions that have a 
digestive action, namely the stomach, small intestines, 
liver, and pancreas will now engage our attention. 

The arrangement of the mucous membrane in the 
stomach of the horse is such that to all intents and pur- 
poses it might be considered as two different organs, the 
villous or true digestive coat, containing the gastric glands. 
The stomach movements tend to mix the gastric juice 
thoroughly through the food, thus ensuring the digestion 
of its contents. The stomach of the pig resembles that 
of the horse; the fourth compartment only of the rumin- 



The Digestive System. 45 

ant stomach is concerned with secretion. Gastric juice is 
a thin, limpid fluid, almost colorless, with a strong acid 
reaction, due to the presence of muriatic (hydrochloric) 
acid, it has an odor peculiar to the animal from which it 
is got. It prevents putrefactive changes and contains 
two ferments — pepsin and the milk-curdling one, some 
free acid (Hcl) and mineral salts. The milk-curdling 
ferment is the active principle in rennet, is very power- 
ful and may be found in watery extracts of the stomach 
of calves or sheep. Gastric juice acts on albuminous 
(proteid) material only, the fats and carbohydrates are 
reserved for the action of the intestinal juices. It is en- 
tirely unexplained why the stomach does not digest itself 
during life, after death such does occur. Gastric diges- 
tion in flesh-eaters (carnivora) is more active than in 
the herbivora, due to the large quantity of pepsin and 
acid contained in the secretion. Pepsin will not work 
in an alkaline medium, hence the acid, as it will be re- 
membered that saliva was alkaline, and therefore unless 
neutralization took place, digestion would be very imper- 
fect. Albumen becomes more indigestible when cooked, 
dogs often suffer from a fetid diarrhoea due to boiled 
meat, which is soon corrected by feeding the raw 
article. Digestion in horses is characterized by the slow- 
ness of the preparatory mechanical stage of digestion, 
and by the rapidity with which the work of the stomach 
is performed, the rapid passage of the liquid material 
into the coecum (blind gut) and the hardness of the ball- 
like form of the residue in the back parts of the bowel. 
Chewing the food is a slow process in the horse, and is 
completed at the time of the meal, consequently the 



46 Veterinary Elements. 

amount of hay eaten is limited by the time, four to six 
pounds being the maximum quantity eaten in an hour, 
should the teeth be in poor shape the time required will 
be about two hours; the same weight of oats require 
twenty to forty minutes. Chopping feed does not help 
animals with sound teeth, it will economize time; on the 
other hand, it is said to be harmful by decreasing the 
amount of saliva poured out. If food is given in excess, 
little of it will spend sufficient time in the stomach, it 
will be rushed on into the intestines, unfit for absorptiou, 
consequently will act as a foreign body, and as a result, 
cause a typical case of colic or acute indigestion; such 
results are every day occurrences in the practice of the 
veterinarian. The stomach will be filled and emptied 
once to three times during a meal, and is most active 
when about two-thirds full. Gastric juice in the horse 
besides containing the constituents already noted, has a 
ferment known as the diastatic ferment, which has the 
power of converting starch into sugar, such action is 
most active during the first two hours of digestion. In 
the stomach, as a result of the action of the juices, the 
albumen of the food is peptonized, a process which 
renders that material capable of being absorbed. The 
amount of peptone increases after a meal and reaches its 
maximum three to four hours later. Meals, therefore, 
must not be crowded too closely together or the results 
will be the same as if an over-amount of food had been 
given. Experiments have shown that if oats are fed 
first, followed as soon as eaten by hay, that they will be 
forced into the intestine undigested, therefore, the better 
plan will be to water and hay first, following with oats 



The Digestive System. 47 

later. In the true stomach of the ruminant, albumen 
is converted into peptone, milk is coagulated and its 
casein peptonized, gelatin is converted into an available 
form, some of the fats are split up, cane sugar being but 
slightly acted upon. 

Gastric digestion takes place in the stomach, is the 
most complete in the ruminant, in which intestinal diges- 
tion is simple. In birds the food is macerated (softened) 
in the crop and mixed with an acid fluid, the crushing 
or grinding being done in the gizzard; the digestive pro- 
cess is very active and thorough in birds. The food 
having undergone the action of the stomach juices is 
then passed to the small intestines, where it meets the 
bile, pancreatic and intestinal juice. The small intes- 
tines are tube-like in form and of a musculo-membranous 
character, in the horse measuring over one hundred feet 
in length. They are divided into three portions, named 
respectively, the Duodenum, one foot in length, Ileum 
and Jejunum. The first section is fixed and has an 
opening into it the ductus communis, which conveys the 
secretions of the liver and pancreas. The other portions 
are hanging free in the mesentery (a double fold of the 
peritoneum). The small intestines are lined with mucous 
membrane, which contains glands and lacteals. These 
lacteals originate in finger-like projections of the mucous 
membrane, known as villi. Those glands which have 
to do with secretion, with which we are now concerned, 
are the liver, spleen and pancreas. The thyroids, little 
reddish round bodies on the sides of the windpipe just 
below the jaws, are of interest, owing to the scientific 
curiosity as to their functions, which up to the present 



48 Veterinary Elements. 

time are not known. Enlargement of these glands occur 
in animals, the condition being known as Goitre, very 
often a serious trouble in breeding ewes, serious because 
the progeny of such ewes die at or soon after birth. The 
thymus gland or sweetbread while well developed in the 
young animal tends to disappear, shrivel up, as the ani- 
mal grows older. It is interesting to note the demand 
for this gland, seventy cents a pound, wholesale, being 
obtained for it in Chicago — that is, for calves sweet- 
breads; two-year old sweetbreads are not as valuable, 
they eventually turning into fat. The liver is the largest 
secreting gland in the body and is situated behind the 
diaphragm. The function of the liver is to secrete 
bile, a flnid greenish yellow in color and bitter to the 
taste. The liver is brown in color and is enclosed in a 
membrane known as Glisson's capsule, which sends in 
leaf-like processes between the lobules; each lobule is 
made up of blood vessels, liver cells and ducts. There 
is a peculiarity about the blood supply of the liver, com- 
ing as it does by two vessels, the hepatic artery fetching 
blood to nourish this important organ, the portal vein 
bringing functional material from the intestines, namely, 
blood, to be acted upon. The hepatic vein conveys away 
the purified blood from the liver and empties it into the 
general circulation. The hepatic duct conveys the bile 
from the liver and joins the duct of the pancreas before 
discharging its contents into the intestine. In cattle, 
sheep and pigs the bile is stored in what is known as the 
gall bladder; the horse has no gall bladder; bile becomes 
concentrated in the gall bladder. In the horse the secre- 
tion of bile seems to be continuous, a maximum amount 



The Digestive System. 49 

being secreted three to four hours after a nieal, food exer- 
cising an influence on the quantity. Fats are acted upon 
by the bile, being split up into fatty acids and glycerine, 
emulsified and then saponified, in which state they are 
capable of being absorbed. Bile has a mildly purgative 
action; its suppression is revealed by constipation, stink- 
ing feces and yellowness of the mucous membranes. A 
secreting gland of even more importance than the liver is 
the pancreas; the reason of such importance is owing to 
the fact that its secretion, the pancreatic juice, contains 
ferments which are more powerful than those secretions 
(the saliva, gastric juice and bile) heretofore discussed, 
yet such being the case there is a relation between bile 
and pancreatic juice. Bile being alkaline neutralizes the 
acid (it will be remembered that the stomach contents 
were acid) and thus assists the pancreatic secretion, 
which in its turn liberates the fatty acids before men- 
tioned. The organ secreting the abdominal saliva, as the 
pancreatic juice has been called, is known as the pan- 
creas; it is of a reddish cream color, and is situated 
behind the stomach and liver and in front of the kid- 
neys. Its duct (Wirsung's) joins that of the liver in 
the horse, not in cattle and sheep. Pancreatic juice is 
a colorless alkaline fluid of a varying composition, de- 
pending on the state of secretion. This juice contains 
a large amount of solids and is readily decomposed, the 
process being evidenced by the fecal odor. It contains 
four ferments, one that acts on starch (amylolytic), one 
that acts on proteids (proteolytic), a fat splitter (into 
fatty acids and glycerine) and a milk curdling ferment, 
similar in action to rennet. The first ferment converts 
4 



50 Veterinary Elements. 

starch into sugar, thus duplicating the work of the saliva; 
it is, however much stronger than ptyalin (the active 
principle of saliva). The action of the second is simi- 
lar to that of pepsin (the active agent in gastric juice), 
differing only that while pepsin needs an acid medium 
to work in, this ferment, trypsin, requires an alkaline 
medium. Pancreatic rennet is more active than that of 
the stomach; boiling, however, destroys the power of the 
ferment. The secretion of pancreatic juice is constant 
in the animals being dealt with (herbivora), and is at its 
maximum towards the end of rumination. In addition to 
to the secretions mentioned, is that of certain glands 
(Lieberkuhn and Brunner) of the intestines, known as 
intestinal juice (succus entericus), which has an action 
similar to the pancreatic juice. It is readily seen that 
intestinal digestion is very important, owing to the com- 
plex nature of the secretions employed, especially so in 
the horse, through whose stomach a great deal of the 
food often passes in an undigested state. So far the 
secretions mentioned have acted upon the more valuable 
parts of the foods and rendered them capable of being 
absorbed, yet the food of farm animals often contains a 
lot of fibre (cellulose) to dispose of which nature has 
provided ways according to the animal. 

The blind gut (coecum) the first part of the large intes- 
tines, assists in the disposal of the cellulose, in ruminants 
the coecum is not as large as in the horse, the needs are 
notso pressing owing to the work done in the large paunch. 
The co3Cum is very small in man and the dog, as would 
be expected from the nature of their food. In the horse 
its structure resembles that of the small intestine, pos- 



The Digestive System. 51 

sessing as it does glands and follicles. Its action is alka- 
line, normally, so that it is quite probable that consider- 
able intestinal digestion takes place there ( Smith) ; 
it is likely the place where cellulose is digested. As 
may be observed by any one, the poorer the food, 
the greater the belly development, — generally termed — 
paunchy; this condition is doubtless due to the fact that 
the poor quality of food has caused the use of much of 
the cellulose, consequently the coecum has been devel- 
oped to meet the necessity and as a result an enlarged 
abdomen; the feeding of such bulky or woody food is 
very undesirable in the horse, resulting as it often does 
in Heaves. 

Before proceeding to the subject of Absorption, a large 
ductless gland, the milt or spleen calls our attention. It 
is a soft reddish sickle shaped organ lying on the great 
curvature of the stomach; is very elastic, therefore 
distensible, its function, however, is unknown. It is 
surmised by some that the blood plates (corpuscles) have 
their origin in the spleen, by others that the spleen is 
the graveyard of these corpuscles; be that as it may, in 
certain diseases (Anthrax, Actinomycosis, Glanders) the 
condition or appearance of the spleen is of value in the 
recognition of the disease (diagnosis). It has been stated 
that the entire digestive tract is lined by mucous mem- 
brane. 

Absorption. The lacteals originate in villi, finger-like 
projections of the mucous membrane, which tend to give 
it a pile. Each villus contains blood vessels, nerves and 
lymphatics; to illustrate introduce a finger into a glove, 
the glove material represents the mucous membrane, the 



52 Veterinary Elements. 

glove finger a villus, and the finger the blood and lym- 
phatic vessels and nerves. These villi are most abundant 
in the small intestines, a few being found in the blind 
gut (coecum) and a few in the large gut (great colon). 
The coecum is situated in the right flank of the animal, 
is quite large, is directed downwards and terminates by 
a blind extremity; it receives two openings, one from 
the small intestines which is guarded by a valve, the 
other from the large colon. The great colon occupies 
the central portion of the abdomen, is arranged in four 
parts, two of which lie on the other two; its external sur- 
face is marked by strong muscular bands. 

The taking in of the prepared food products is per- 
formed by the blood vessels and the lacteals, which con- 
stitute the entrance to the lymphatic system. The great 
colon acts as an organ of absorption in horses; digestion 
does not take place in the colon, although absorption 
may. The special organs having to do with absorption 
are the lymphatics, the lacteals being one form of them, 
they originate in the mucous membrane of certain parts 
of the intestines, carry and eventually empty into the 
blood the products of digestion, which thus become avail- 
able to the body. Fat is said to be absorbed as the result 
of a selective action of the lymphatic cells. The mate- 
rial taken into the blood by the lacteals is known as 
chyle. Absorption then is the entrance of digested food 
products into the circulation via the blood or lymph 
channels; why these products should enter in is not fully 
determined; it is held by some investigators to be due 
to the selective or vital action of the lymph cells. 



CHAPTEE IV. 
EXCRETION. 

The expulsion of waste products from the body is by 
means of a, the feces (dung); b, the urine; c, the sweat; 
d, respired (breathed) air, and is termed excretion. 

A. By the feces (dung). In the description of the 
digestive tract the food had to be taken as far as the 
great colon, where it was stated some absorption might 
take place, from there back, however, the remainder 
of the food ingested cannot be acted upon for various 
reasons, such as the previous extraction of all the 
nutritive matters, etc. The division of the intestinal 
canal behind the great colon is the floating colon, located 
in horses in the left flank, in cattle and sheep the 
upper part of the left flank is occupied by the paunch. 
This colon has a number of tightenings (constrictions) 
in its walls, due to certain circular muscular fibres. 
It will be remembered that the entire intestinal tract 
is a musculo-membranous tube, and that long and cir- 
cular muscular fibres enter more or less into the con- 
struction of it. It has also been stated that muscles con- 
tract and relax, hence it would be expected that the 
intestines would have a certain amount of movement, 
such is true, there is a constant worm-like motion in the 
intestinal walls during life; unless paralyzed such move- 
ment is known as peristalsis, or the peristalic, (vermicular 
or worm-like) movement of the bowels. As a result of this 



54 Veterinary Elements. 

movement of the long muscle fibres, together with the con- 
traction of the short circular muscle fibres, the waste ma- 
terial is passed back and is given a more or less ball like 
form. It is in the floating colon particularly that the feces 
(dung or waste material) take their form. The next 
portion of the canal is the straight gut (or rectum), an 
organ with thick dilatable walls; it lies above the blad- 
der in the male, in the female above the vagina and 
uterus. Its location will thus account for the passage of 
feces via the vagina and vulva, a serious condition, usu- 
ally the result of accident during copulation (mating) or 
parturition (the act of bringing forth the young). The 
point of exit of the feces is known as the anus, which is 
made up principally of circular muscular fibres, the action 
of which is to close the opening and thus prevent the 
involuntary passage of feces. In certain forms of paraly- 
sis the anus is not under control, consequently the feces 
pass away at all times. The process of emptying the 
rectum is known as defecation and is performed by con- 
traction of the abdominal muscles and relaxation of the 
muscular fibres of the anus. The anus tends to recede 
and become less tense with age. Horsemen speak of a 
horse being "well buttoned up," a desirable condition, 
evidencing good nervous and muscular tone, the expression 
refers to the condition of the anus. When making the 
examination the tail (dock) is lifted, a flabby tail is very 
undesirable, but a strong dock, as it is termed, is another 
indication of tone, showing that the muscles of the tail 
have strong contractile power; allowances will have to be 
made for horses that have had their tails "nicked," an 
operation in which the muscles that pull the tail down 
have been cut. 



Excretion. 55 

The rectum is largely used by veterinarians as an organ 
by which certain medication (injection, etc.) can be 
performed upon the animal, feeding is rarely attempted 
in animals by this means; it must, however, be remem- 
bered that the mucous membrane extends through- 
out the digestive tract as far as the anus, and also that 
the membrane is delicate and easily injured. A cruel 
practice followed by some grooms is known as "figging" 
and consists of the introduction of irritants (usually gin- 
ger) into the rectum; the object being to give a false life 
to a slow, slouchy animal or to excite him so that any 
lameness is hidden, or to render the horse so irritable as 
to prevent a fair examination. 

B. The Urine. The consideration of the second 
method of excretion calls for a description of the organs 
—the kidneys, ureters, bladder and urethra — which per- 
form this useful work. The kidneys are two glands sit- 
uated to the right and left under-sides of the spinal col- 
umn, the right kidney being situated just behind the last 
ribs, the left one being a ccmple of inches further back. 
In the horse they are heart or bean shaped, in cattle and 
sheep each one is somewhat divided into a grapelike 
mass. In front of the kidneys and attached to them are 
two glands (suprarenals) whose function is unknown, 
unless they perform work during the period before birth. 
Blood vessels and nerves enter the kidney at a depres- 
sion or spot called the hilus; these vessels, nerves, con- 
nective tissue and urinary tubes (tubuli uriniferi) go to 
make up the kidney substance which is enclosed by a 
fibrous covering. The small tubes wind a great deal 
and empty into a cavity know as the sinus, which is a 



56 Veterinary Elements. 

widening out of the ureter. Blood is supplied the kid- 
neys by the renal artery and removed by the renal veins. 
If a section of a kidney is made, two portions together 
with the cut ends, etc., of vessels and tubes, are seen; 
the outer part being known as the cortex, the inner the 
medulla. The kidneys afford the main road for the 
throwing out (excretion) of broken down nitrogenous 
material, the ammonia being evidence as to the charac- 
ter of the waste material. The secretion of urine may be 
considered as a filtering out of waste products from the 
blood, water being its main constituent; in addition to 
the filtration process, the kidneys cells have a selective 
action, and take certain substances from the blood which 
they change somewhat and later discharge into the urine. 
The amount of the urine is inversely as the sweat; more 
urine is passed in cold weather than in warm weather, 
due to the greater blood pressure in the kidneys at that 
time (e. g., winter). The urine of carnivora (dogs, etc.) 
is acid, clear, has more solids and is small in quantity, 
whereas that of herbivora is turbid, poor in solids, alka- 
line in reaction and great in quantity. When horses are 
fed hay or straw only the urine is alkaline, when fed 
oats principally, the urine is small in quantity, turbid, 
acid and sticky. The urine of cattle and sheep is clear, 
greenish yellow in color and poorer iu solids than that of 
the horse; that of the pig is clear, yellowish and alka- 
line. Two tubes originate in the depressions of the kid- 
neys and go to the bladder, one entering on either side; 
they go through the coats of the bladder on the slant, 
thus forming a valve which prevents the urine passing 



Excretion. 57 

ters. The bladder is the urinary reservoir situated in 
the pelvic cavity, although when full it may extend into 
the abdominal cavity. It is divided into a fundus (the 
wide part) and neck which is continuous with the ure- 
thra, the latter the tube carrying the urine to the out- 
side of the body. The exit from the bladder is guarded 
by a circular (sphincter) muscle, which by its contraction 
prevents the trickling of urine continuously. The coats 
of the bladder are three in number, serous — externally, 
muscular or middle coat— and mucous — internally. The 
urethra in cattle and sheep differs from that of the horse, 
in the former having an S-shaped curve, whereas in the 
latter it is straight. The urethra in the female of these 
animals opens on the floor of the vulva, at a short dis- 
tance (3 to 4 inches) from the outside of the body. In 
cows the entrance to the urethra is guarded by a valve- 
like piece of skin, which must be lifted in order to pass 
the catheter. The difference in length and construction 
of the urethra in the sexes accounts for the greater fre- 
quency of stones (calculi) in the bladder and urethra in 
males. When the bladder becomes filled the mucous 
membrane comes in contact with the urine, a nervous 
impulse is sent to the brain and as a consequence the neck 
(sphincter muscle) of the bladder is relaxed, and the 
urine is passed, the whole constituting a good illustra- 
tion of reflex action, the exercise of the will power not 
being called for. The urine is made use of by chemists 
and medical men, by the former to estimate the amount 
of nitrogenous, material used or wasted in the body, by 
the latter to determine the disease, if any, in the person 
or animal, the operation being known as urinary aualysis. 



58 Veterinarg Elements. 

C. The Sweat. The importance of the sweat glands 
and the sweat as an avenue for the exit of waste matter 
varies in the different animals. The sweat, and we may 
as well include the sebaceous glands,, are appendages of 
the skin. The sweat glands consist of coiled tubes im- 
bedded in the skin with an outlet at the surface (pores) ; 
the sebaceous glands are also found in the skin at parts 
most exposed to friction, they discharge a fatty substance 
into the hair follicles. The sebaceous secretion is most 
abundant on the parts covered with hair or wool. The 
yolk (oil) in sheep's wool is the product of the sebaceous 
glands; it consists of the broken down cells of the gland 
and gives the oily appearance to the fleece. Ill health 
causes changes in the yolk, which are at once evident to 
the shepherd. This oiliness can be got in the coats of 
horses and cattle by good feeding and grooming. In 
certain breeds of cattle this secretion is very yellow in 
color and is much desired, as it is considered an indica- 
tion of the tendency to secrete rich milk (?), the inside of 
the ears are in cattle generally given a cursory glance to 
determine this fact. In sheep a pink condition of the 
skin is desired, a dead white or blue color indicating ill 
health. 

Sweat glands are highly developed in man and the 
horse, in the latter especially on the inside of the thighs, 
as also in sheep, in cattle little sweating is done. Car- 
nivora (dogs and cats) sweat through the soles of their 
feet. The amount of sweat is modified by the food, 
drink, condition of the atmosphere and amount of exer- 
cise. Perspiration (sweat) is spoken of as sensible or 
insensible, in the former is visible; in normal conditions 



Excretion. 59 

sweat is being excreted continuously. Formation of 
sweat depends on the activity of the gland cells, there- 
fore increase of the blood supply to the skin would mean 
increased sweating. More water and more solids are 
excreted by the skin than by the lungs. The trotting 
horseman, as the result of experience, seems to appreci- 
ate the work of the sweat glands more fully than any 
other class of stockmen, as is evidenced by the thorough 
attention given to their charges when training or racing, 
in any case thorough grooming at regular and frequent 
intervals is necessary to prevent dried sweat and dead 
skin scales from blocking the exit (pores of the skin) of 
the sweat glands. An experiment conducted to show 
how necessary to the good health of the animal open 
pores are, consisted of the varnishing of the entire body 
of the animal — death resulted. 

D. Respired Air. This form of excretion borders so 
closely on the inspiration (taking in of fresh air — one 
fcrm of food) that the description of the organs perform- 
ing this work will be discussed separately. 

Breathing (respiration) consists of the taking in of 
pure air, charged with oxygen (the life-giving gas), and 
the exchange of that oxygen for carbon di-oxide (a 
poisonous gas), the exchange taking place in the lungs. 
The blood is brought into intimate relation with the air 
in the lungs, therefore we find that as a result of such 
contact the blood becomes charged with oxygen, thicker 
in a sense, of a deeper red color, and discharges carbon 
di-oxide and heat, the latter the result of the exchange 
of the one gas for the other. Here then we have in a 
nutshell the reasons for ventilation: (1) to remove im- 



60 Veterinary Elements. 

pure air and (2) fetch in pure air, and by carrying out 
these two important things give (3) the means of warmth 
to the animal. 

The processes of taking in food, using it and discharg- 
ing the waste, have been described, there remains, how- 
ever, the consideration of the respiratory (breathing) 
organs — dual-purpose in character — because, as inti- 
mated above, not only do they remove the waste poison- 
ous gas (carbon di-oxide), but also are the means by 
which that valuable gas — oxygen, without which no 
animal life can exist, is brought into the system. 

The Organs of Respiration. The organs going to make 
the respiratory system are the nostrils, nasal cavities, 
pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchial tubes and 
lungs. The nostrils are situated at the anterior extremity 
of the nasal chambers, they are made up of cartilages, 
which are dilated by muscles, and lined by mucous 
membrane. At the upper part of the nostrils are two 
blind pockets, called false nostrils; just inside the nostrils 
are small openings, the point of exit of tears, brought 
from the eyes by the lachrymal duct. A large nostril is 
much desired, as the nostrils control the amount of air 
taken in. The nasal chambers are two cavities separated 
by a piece of cartilage (gristle), the septum nasi, in 
each cavity are thin delicate curled bony plates, the tur- 
binated bones, covered with mucous membrane, which is 
thin and contains delicate blood vessels, consequently the 
air is warmed as it passes over these bony plates before 
being taken into the lungs. Fine nerves, constituting the 
organs of smell, are also distributed in the nasal mucous 
membrane. This mucous membrane is a pale delicate 



Excretion. 61 

rose color, the color and condition of the mucous mem- 
brane are valuable aids in the recognition of diseases. 
The sinuses of the head communicate with the nasal 
cavities, evidence of which can be seen in cattle just after 
removing the horns. The pharynx, just behind and below 
the nasal cavities, is common to both respiratory and di- 
gestive tracts and has already been described. The 
larynx or voice box has been termed a musculo-cartila- 
ginous valve, being made up of muscles, cartilages seven 
in number, ligaments, and the vocal chords, the organs 
of voice. Mucous membranes line the entire respiratory 
tract. The muscles of the larynx have control of its 
movements, such as widening or narrowing its capacity 
by tightening or relaxing the vocal chords. In the dis- 
ease known as Roaring there is wasting of the muscles 
that control the chords, consequently the calibre of the 
tube is smaller than required when the horse is put to 
severe exertion, such as racing or drawing heavy loads. 
One of the cartilages of the larynx acts as a lid to the 
voice box, and thus prevents food particles falling into 
the larynx when on the way to the gullet. This being 
the case it will at once be seen why when drenching ani- 
mals only small quantities and plenty of time should be 
given; if large amounts are poured down rapidly the lid 
becomes raised to allow the animal to breathe and the 
fluid passes down "the wrong way," that is, into the 
windpipe; this will also occur if the tongue is pulled for- 
ward during drenching, as such pulling tends to raise the 
lid up and thus open the larynx, with the result quite 
often of the death of the animal. 



62 Veterinary Elements. 

Immediately below the larynx is the windpipe (tra- 
chea), a flexible tube made up of rings of cartilage, liga- 
ments, etc. ; lying just above it is the gullet (esophagus). 
The trachea or windpipe is located in the region of the 
neck, and at its lower end enters the chest cavity, where 
it divides into smaller tubes (the bronchi), which again 
divide into still smaller tubes (the bronchioles), these 
end in little pockets or sacs (the air cells of the lung). 
The mucous membrane of the trachea has numbers of 
cells possessed of wavy tails, known as cilia. These cilia 
have a continual motion from within outwards, so that if 
mucus or some foreign particles get into the windpipe, 
by the motion of these cilia, this material is thrown out. 

The blind pockets or air vesicles of the lungs are 
formed of a very fine membrane surrounded by very 
delicate blood vessels. These air cells, the small bron- 
chioles, blood vessels and nerves go to make up the 
lungs, which are spongy organs of a rosy flesh color, some- 
what marbled in appearance; the right lung is some- 
what larger than the left, the latter being encroached 
upon by the heart. A healthy lung will float in water. 
The lung substance in the natural state is very elastic 
and requires plenty of room for expansion; pressure on 
the lung tissue, due to lack of room, the result of such 
causes as overfeeding, feeding bulky in-nutritious feed, 
sometimes ends in rupture of some of the air cells; this 
condition prevents the performance of the natural lung 
work and as a disease is termed Heaves. 

In connection with the lungs the pleura, one of the 
serous membranes, commands attention. The pleura has 



Excretion. 63 

two layers, one covering the lungs, the other lining the 
inside of the ribs; between the two layers is a small space. 
The two layers of the pleura, in health, glide over one 
another without friction, being oiled by the secretions, as 
a result of inflammation, the layers become dry and pain 
is the result; later on an excessive discharge of fluid may 
take place, constituting water in the chest (hydrothorax). 



CHAETEE V. 
THE PROCESS OF BREEDING. 

Reproduction. The reproductive function in animals 
is one of great moment to the stockman, because accord- 
ing as their fecundity ( fruitful ness) is above or below 
the average, so will his income likely be above or 
below the average. In ordinary cases a knowledge of 
the anatomy and physiology of the generative organs is 
not needed, but in the extraordinary cases — such as dis- 
inclination to breed, retention of the afterbirth or other 
unnatural conditions — such knowledge is absolutely es- 
sential to the stockman's financial success. 

The generative process may be considered as one of 
the ordinary methods of growing farm crops. The ele- 
ment (semen) of the male constitutes the seed, the womb 
(uterus) of the female the soil in which the seed is 
planted, under natural conditions, the crop (offspring) 
is assured. The generative organs of the male are quite 
different to those of the female in appearance, yet anala- 
gous in their origin, for example, the clitoris in the 
female corresponds to the penis, the ovaries to the tes- 
ticles, and so on. 

The Male Organs. The cod, bag, sac (scrotum) con- 
tains the stones or testicles, and is located between, or 
behind (as in the pig) the thighs. It has several coats 
derived from the skin, and from some of the abdominal 
muscles, externally it shows a line or raphe, thus divid- 



The Process of Breeding. 65 

ing it into two halves. The testicles are two egg shaped 
bodies placed horizontally in the horse, vertically in 
cattle and sheep. They are made up of a number (200- 
300) blind tubes in which is secreted the sperm or semen. 
The spermatic cord, made up of blood vessels (it is 
important to remember in castration that the artery of 
the cord is situated at the front part of it), nerves, serous 
membrane, lymphatics -and a muscle, the cremaster 
(which withdraws the testicle up into the inguinal canals 
at castration), the vas deferens (a tube conveying the 
semen to the penis), suspends the testicle in the scrotum. 
This spermatic cord is located in what are known as 
the inguinal canals, entrance to which is obtained 
through two slits in the abdominal floor; previous to 
birth the testicles are up in the body, later on they 
descend through the rings (openings of the canals). In 
exceptional cases the testicles do not descend, in such 
cases the animal is known as a ridgling, original (cryp- 
torchid) and is often vicious and hard to control. The 
penis is made up of the urethra, which is situated on the 
under surface, and erectile tissue, the latter being made 
up of blood vessels which become engorged with blood 
during sexual excitement, the erectile tissue forms the 
glans or head. The sheath (prepuce) is a fold of loose 
skin that envelopes the penis, it is the location of 
numerous sebaceous glands. This organ requires careful 
examination at intervals, or if allowed to become dirty 
or clogged the passage of the urine is more or less hin- 
dered, due partially to the castrated male (gelding, steer 
or wether) urinating in the sheath. The noise made by 
horses when trotting, is due to the air rushing into the 



66 Veterinary Elements. 

sheath. In bovines the penis is long and thin, the sheath 
longer than in the horse. The peculiarity in the male 
organ of ruminants (cattle and sheep) is the S-shaped 
curve which permits of rapid extension of that organ, 
but prevents the passage of a catheter. The end of the 
penis of the ram is marked by a small thin projection, 
the worm as it is called by shepherds; the removal of 
this worm (often performed in Great Britain to prevent 
the stoppage of small stones in the urethra) is said to 
render a ram infertile ? 

The semen (spermatic fluid) is a sticky white fluid 
with a peculiar odor; it contains numerous little objects 
with ovoid heads and wavy tails known as spermatozoa, 
by means of the wavy movement they are enabled to 
make their way up the fallopian tubes of the female. 

The Female Reproductive Organs are the ovaries, fallo- 
pian tubes, womb (uterus), vagina, vulva. The ovaries 
are situated below and behind the kidneys, fastened to 
the uterine ligament; they are bluish or reddish white 
in color, and although smaller, resemble the testicles in 
shape. The ovaries are the birthplace of the ovum (egg). 
Two crooked tubes, one from each ovary, convey the 
ovum to the horns of the womb, these tubes are lodged 
in the folds of the broad ligament. The womb (uterus) 
is a musculo-membranous organ with very distensible 
walls, situated in the pelvic cavity and below the loin 
and croup. The uterus is said to have a body, horns 
and neck (os). The horns (in the mare) are directed 
upwards and forwards, in the cow downwards. The back 
part of the womb is narrowed to form the neck (os) 
which projects into the vagina. In the mare the womb 



The Process of Breeding. 67 

lining is comparatively smooth, whereas in the cow the 
mucous membrane lining the uterus shows rounded ele- 
vations — buttons or cotyledons. The womb of the ewe is 
similar to that of the cow, the horns being longer, as they 
are also in the sow. The vagina is the passage connect- 
ing the womb and the vulva; it is the organ of copula- 
tion and permits the passage of the offspring. The vulva 
is the external opening of the genito-urinary tract, ap- 
pearing as a long ovoid slit below the anus; on the 
floor of the vulva is the entrance to the bladder, and also 
the clitoris (composed of erectile tissue). 

Eeproduction is accomplished by the union of two indi- 
viduals of the opposite sexes. 

Heat, Rut, Oestrum are all terms used to describe the 
natural mating period, at which time the ovum (egg) is 
developed in the ovary, and passed from thence to the 
uterus, where if it meets the male element may become 
fertilized and undergo development into the offspring. 
This formation of the ovum does not occur until a certain 
period, known as puberty, which is manifested by the 
first appearance of heat, the signs of which are swelling 
and reddening of the genitals, flow of reddish, peculiar 
smelling discharge, frequent attempts to urinate, rest- 
lessness, bellowing and seeking of the male, mounting 
other animals, spasmodic movements of the clitoris are 
evidenced during the erotic period. The condition of 
rut or heat becomes more frequent with domestication. 

The time elapsing between the periods of heat varies 
in the different animals, occurring in the mare at inter- 
vals of eighteen to twenty- one days, in cattle about 
every three weeks, ewes every sixteen to seventeen days, 



68 Veterinary Elements. 

sows ten to twelve days. Mating will only be permitted 
during the period of heat. The time available for mat- 
ing also varies in animals, the average duration of heat 
in the mare is two to three days, in the cow fifteen to 
thirty hours, ewe two to three days, in the sow one to 
three days. The presence of the male is often required 
to prove the existence of the heat. If conception takes 
place heat is not evinced again until after the birth of the 
young. The cow will come in heat four weeks after 
calving, the mare nine days after foaling; in ewes, 
except Dorsets and their crosses, breeding will not be al- 
lowed until fall, while sows show no signs of heat until 
after the pigs are weaned, although conception has been 
known to take place three days after farrowing. The 
time taken by the ovum to reach the uterus may be two 
or three days, in rare cases after becoming impregnated, 
the ovum has fallen into the abdominal cavity and there 
developed. Some animals are continually in heat; such 
is usually an evidence of a diseased condition of the 
ovaries. Puberty in the male is evidenced by the secre- 
tion of semen and the presence of the sexual appetite. 
The contact of the male organ, which must be erect, with 
the walls of the vagina causes ejaculation of the semen. 
One single spermatozoon is sufficient to impregnate an 
ovum, such being the case, numerous services during one 
heat should not be permitted except in special cases. Im- 
pregnation is as a rule only possible between animals of 
the same species; hybrids are the result of crosses be- 
tween different species, such as between the donkey and 
horse, the mule being the result. Hybrids will not 
breed. Artificial breeding by means of the capsule 



The Process of Breeding. 69 

method is useful in mares that are shy or difficult breed- 
ers, and in those who throw out the semen. (See Ster- 
ility.) 

When the ovum is impregnated it is carried to the 
uterus, (if impregnation took place in the fallopian tube) 
and there undergoes the natural course of development, 
barring accidents, into the young animal. The period 
taken to ensure such development usually spoken of as 
the period of gestation, is on the average forty-two weeks 
in the mare, thirty-six to thirty-eight weeks in the cow, 
twenty-one weeks in the ewe and she-goat, and seventeen 
weeks in the sow. It is quite a common occurence for 
any of those animals to run over the time mentioned. 

Essentials to Success in Mating are: Single services by 
the male, except in exceptional cases, plenty of exercise, 
liberal diet of fleshformers, and maturity; in the female 
the same apply. Although breeding is possible at 
puberty, which occurs in horses at one and one-half 
years, eight to twelve months in bovines, and six to 
eight months in the sheep and pig, it does not follow 
that it should be permitted; breeding from immature 
stock is one of the curses of the livestock industry. 

At the time of mating both animals should be in a 
healthy condition. Mares are often exercised or bled just 
before service in order to ensure conception. Up-to-date 
shepherds make a practice of flushing the ewes, as it is 
called, by feeding rape, oats, etc., for a short time previ- 
ous to mating. 

Success in mating depends not on the number of serv- 
ices, but on the vitality and age of the animals used; 
domestication has had its effects in the hands of intel- 



70 Veterinary Elements. 

ligent breeders for good, as is seen by the improvement 
in live stock, and for evil also, judging by the mongrels, 
such as stallions, bulls, etc., permitted to travel the 
country and perpetuate their kind. Breeding and breeds 
does not come in the scope of this work, but as the 
anatomy of the parts used has been described, the physi- 
ology of mating should also be understood, some of the 
visible signs have been described, so that the stockman 
knows how and when to utilize animals for his benefit, 
the question arises, how often should the generative act 
be allowed, and at what time of life should mating first 
be performed ? While bleeders differ to some extent, 
the intelligent progressive ones are a unit in decrying 
the use of immature dams and sires, the following sent- 
ences contain the kernel of the matter. 

Stallions should not be used until two years old, at 
which time they may be mated with a dozen good mares 
so as to get an idea of their value as sires; at three years 
old may have forty mares; at four years old, sixty mares, 
and up, numbers of stallions exceeding the century 
mark during a season, the handling during that time 
will be a factor in determining the percentage of live 
foals. Forty per cent, is considered a fair average of 
living foals, although often exceeded; it is stated that 
Bysdyk's Hambletonian foaled sixty- nine per cent, of 
his mares. The government stallions of France and 
Germany are not used until four years old, and are then 
allowed only four mares a day, as many as one hundred 
being covered during a season. The concensus of opin- 
ion seems to be that a mare should not be bred until she 
is three years old. The practice of good horsemen is to 



The Process of Breeding. 71 

allow at least an interval of one hour between services, 
and seldom is more than one service given a mare in the 
one heat. 

Bulls may be allowed twenty-five cows in a breeding 
season, although the practice of advanced dairymen of 
having cows coming in at different times increases the 
opportunities for the use of the bull' s procreative powers 
manifold, the conditions under which such an animal is 
kept practically controls his ability as a sire; if fat and 
lacking exercise his powers are markedly deficient. 

Heifers are usually bred to come in at two years of 
age; if earlier their development is hindered and they 
are forever spoiled. 

The practice with rams varies with the location to 
some extent, on the ranges a ram is allotted to 
forty ewes; if ram lambs are used, only six to ten 
ewes should be allowed; a better practice is to use no 
rams below the yearling age, which means in most flocks, 
eighteen months or thereabouts. The shepherd is so 
situated that he, of all the stockmen, can watch the re- 
sults of overmating and the use of immature sires and 
dams, if such are used, or the ram overtaxed, the lambs 
come either weak or undersized; a ram whose powers are 
carefully husbanded, by turning with the ewes for a 
short time only each day, may have as many as sixty 
ewes in the breeding season, frequent services should not 
be allowed, only bad results follow, such as weakening 
of the ram. Ewes are not usually bred until they have 
attained the age of yearlings. 

A boar cannot be expected to be a successful sire un- 
less he has reached the age of one year; the sow being 



72 Veterinary Elements. 

bred to farrow at the same age; ther 
of the average boar being over-taxed, Coburn, in his 
Swine Husbandry, recommends that five or six farmers 
combine to own a boar, each farmer being supposed to 
own a dozen brood sows. 

The Digestive and Reproductive Organs of Poultry differ 
slightly from those of other farm stock. The gullet in 
poultry is quite long and presents a widening out in the 
neck known as the crop, which performs practically the 
same work as the first stomach of cattle or the saliva of 
the horse; lower down the gullet again enlarges to form 
the proventriculw (the first stomach cavity) where a 
fluid resembling gastric juice is secreted, to this succeeds 
a muscular cavity known as the gizzard. The gizzard is 
of interest because the work of grinding the food, ordi- 
narily done in the mouth, takes place in this muscular 
cavity, the thoroughness of this grinding process depends 
on the presence of grit; such being the case a supply of 
grit is essential to the health of poultry. The powerful 
muscular walls of the gizzard by their action grind the 
food between the particles of grit found in that stomach. 
The intestines are shorter than in the other varieties of 
farm stock, and terminate in a tube known as the cloaca 
which is common to the digestive, urinary and reproduc- 
tive organs. The testicles in birds are located under the 
back bone just in front of the kidneys, on a level with 
the origin of the last two pairs of ribs. The excrement of 
poultry is, as all know, of two colors showing distinct 
portions. The white portion is the kidney secretion, the 
dark portion the bowel excretion. Experiments have 
been carried on to determine the length of time necessary 



The Process of Breeding. 73 

to elapse before all the eggs of a flock of hens will be fertile 
after the placing of the cock with them, it has been 
found that an interval of ten days is about the time 
required, it has also been found that the same time must 
elapse after removal of the cock before all the eggs are 
infertile. 

Muscular development in poultry is mainly of interest 
in connection with its fitness for the table; we find that 
the same width of back and breast is desired in poultry 
as in other meat bearing stock. The breast, especially, 
should be well covered with meat to fully supply the 
demand of the meat market; to obtain such, plenty of 
exercise, pure air, good food and water are necessary, 
together with the grit before mentioned, heredity has a 
powerful influence similar to its results in cattle. The 
time necessary for the bringing forth of the offspring 
varies according to the species, chickens are hatched out 
in three weeks, goslings, ducklings, and poults (the 
young of the turkey) in a month. The development of 
the chick in the egg, by the aid of the incubator, sup- 
plies the investigator with a large part of his knowledge 
regarding the development of the young animal in the 
womb, beginning with the time when the ovum was 
impregnated in the tube until it is expelled from the 
womb. The egg is kept at an average temperature of 
103 degrees when in the incubator. Formation of an 
Egg. Fowls have only one ovary and one oviduct 
at maturity; from the ovary comes the ovum, con- 
sisting of the yelk enclosed in a thin membrane, at 
the upper part of the oviduct it is fertilized, it is 
then forced down the oviduct by contractions of that 



74 Veterinary Elements. 

tube; during its downward course being coated with a 
dense layer of albumen, lower down the oviduct 
more albumen is added, the last albumen added being 
more watery than the first, then a thin film-like mem- 
brane formed of albumen is added; still further down, 
the small end outwards, it reaches the uterine widening 
where it is coated with a thick white fluid which hard- 
ens and becomes the shell. The color of the egg shell is 
got from the color secreting villi of the uterine cavity, 
the pores in the egg shell being the result of contact with 
those villi. The shell substance contains carbonate of 
lime with a little carbonate of magnesia, phosphate 
of lime and magnesia; food containing these materials 
or the materials themselves must therefore be supplied 
to the feathered farm stock. The egg takes from four to 
six hours to travel from the ovary to the uterus, where it 
may stay twelve to twenty hours before being extruded 
as the egg of commerce. 

Mating of Poultry. The same principles of mating 
apply to poultry as to the four-footed stock; there- 
fore for breeding purposes a cock may be allowed 
ten to twenty hens, more than that number is un- 
profitable, the large percentage of infertile eggs com- 
plained of by many farmers is due to the overtaxing 
of the procreative powers of the cock. Pullets and 
year old hens are the most profitable layers, the 
breeding hens should be one year old or upwards, it is 
not advisable to hatch from pullet eggs. Ducks are 
usually paired or two ducks to one drake, the female 
may lay as many as 40 to 50 eggs in a season. The gan- 
der is usually given three geese, who lay two settings of 



The Process of Breeding. 75 

eggs in a season, geese do not lay until one year old. 
Turkeys are slower in coming to maturity than other 
fowl, the torn (male turkey) should be from two to three 
years of age before mating to get the best results, five 
turkey hens are allowed to a torn; an interesting fact 
about the mating of turkeys is that one visit suffices to 
fertilize all the eggs (10 to 20) laid by the turkey at 
one period, it is quite common for the turkey hen to 
lay twice in a season, the second lot are rarely fertile. 



CHAPTER VI. 
THE MILK GLANDS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS. 

The milk glands are essential to the proper perform- 
ance of the reproductive function. Man has however 
made use of the milk function and developed it to such 
an extent that some cows are now specialists in milk pro- 
production; the result of such specialization is that the 
milk glands have become larger, the milking habit more 
persistent, the quantity given greater and the liability 
to disease increased. 

The Udder. The arrangement and construction of these 
milk gland varies in the different animals. The mare's 
udder consists of two halves each presenting a nipple or 
teat pierced by openings for the passage of milk; in mares 
that have never borne young the teats and udder are 
small, in old brood mares the udder and teats are large 
and flabby. 

The udder of the cow is composed of two halves, each 
again divided so that we speak of the quarters of an 
udder; while in the ewe two glands only are present, each 
with a teat; in the sow the udder extends along the belly 
and has from eight to ten teats belonging to as many 
glands, arranged in two rows lengthwise. The interior 
of the gland is made up of gland tissue formed into lobes, 
each lobe being made up of smaller lobules, each of these 
in turn being made up of cells and small ducts. These 
ducts unite to form larger ducts, all of which gradually 



The Milk Glands and their Functions. 77 

converge to the center of the gland where they form 
cavities known as the milk sinuses, they used to be 
termed lactiferous (milk-making) sinuses. 

The milk sinuses empty the lacteal secretion into the 
teats, each of which is guarded by a sphincter muscle at 
its lower end, it is this sphincter muscle which is so hard 
to relax in some cows, that causes them to be termed 
hard milkers. The udder is lined with a delicate cell 
structure known as epithelium, this cell structure extend- 
ing to the alveoli (lobules). 

Shape of Milk Gland. It has been stated that the in- 
ternal parts of the udder consist of cells and other struct- 
ures; and as such, require the use of the microscope more 
or less in their examination, besides the cells, consider- 
able connective tissue enters into the udder formation, 
the amount of such tissue materially affects the elasticity 
of the udder, as it does in muscle. The so-called meati- 
ness depends on the presence of a large quantity of con- 
nective tissue, the presence of which cannot help but 
supplant gland tissue (secreting tissue), therefore we 
can understand why expert udder-judges want elastic 
udders on their cows. Prof. Plumb has made a series of 
studies of the external form of the udder and the rela- 
tion of that form to usefulness. We caDnot do better 
than note what he says regarding the matter: " A good 
type of udder will have its side-line, that of the curve of 
a circle, if a fine udder, it will be carried along beyond 
the lines of the circle, by an extension along the belly 
and up between the hind legs, such an udder with teats 
about three and one-half inches long, make a good type 
as viewed from the side. Examined from the rear, .there 





78 Veterinary Elements. 

should be considerable thickness, the dividing furrow 
shallow, and no meatiness the good udder when milked 
out being fairly well shrunken." While the ultimate 

test of the milking 
ability will be the 
scales and the Bab- 
cock test, there can 
be no doubt 
whatever after a 
close study of the 
experiments of 
Prof. Plumb that 
the shape and con- 
struction of the ud- 
der are valuable 
indications toward 
getting a correct 

A Poor Fore Udder. idea f the milking 

abilities of a cow. The above authority calls attention to 
the lack of fore udder in many cows and gives figures to 
back up his contention, that the best udder is the squarely- 
balanced, elastic-feeling udder, with a large blood sup- 
ply. Certain breeds are deficient in this respect, the 
Ayrshire, however, being strong in fore udder develop- 
ment. There is much in heredity; many stock breeders 
examine the bull intended to head their herds, for the 
placing of the rudimentaries (small teats just in front of 
bag or scrotum) as they believe that such placing is an 
indication of the probable placing of the teats in his 
progeny, consequently they want the rudimentaries 
squarely placed. Prof. Plumb puts the question u may 



The Milk Glands and their Functions. 79 

not a material gain in milk-flow be secured by develop- 
ing the fore udder % ' ' The figures submitted by him in 
Bulletin 62, of Purdue University, certainly hold out 
testimony that such improvement may result. 

In heavy milkers the udder is often perpendicular; 
what is termed the funnel-shaped udder is not a desirable 
type, neither are udders with very large teats. It is 
interesting to note that no such irregularity of form is 
presented by any part of the anatomy of the horse, ox, 
sheep or pig, as is shown in the milk glands of the cow. 
If one-quarter of an udder is diseased, the other quarters 
do not seem to take on the work of the resting quarter. 

The function of the udder is to secrete milk, the stimu- 
lus to do so being the 
maternal function, 
thus the work of this 
organ differs from that 
of others in the body, 
in that its secretion 
serves no useful pur- 
pose to the animal 
secreting, but is in- 
tended by nature to 
serve as a food on 
which to raise the 
offspring. 

The secretion of 
milk is held to depend A Good Fore Udder - 

on a throwing off of the epithelial cells of the alveoli, 
combined with a filtering out of water, salts and other 
materials from the blood; when that secretion takes 



^ 



80 



Veterinary Elements. 



place is yet a moot point, the opinion held by the best 
authorities is, that the secretion of the greater part of 
the milk goes on during the act of milking. It is now 

held that the nerv- 
ous system has 
largely to do with 
the production of 
milk, a reasonable 
conclusion when we 
remember that the 
activity of a gland 
depends largely on 
its blood supply, 
that supply being 
controlled by the 
nerves, whose ac- 
tion is to contract 
or widen the blood 
vessels. 

Roehrig describes a nerve which leaves the spinal cord 
and goes to the udder, filaments from its branches go to 
the teats, the cisterns and the alveoli. When the teats 
are worked with the hands the nerves surrounding them 
are irritated, and through them the secreting glands are 
stimulated, causing their contraction and the discharge 
of their contents. 

The veins along the belly leave the front of the udder 
and go forward in a more or less winding manner, branch 
more or less often, and eventually disappear through 
holes in the abdominal floor, termed milk wells, then 
pass along on the inside on the upper side of the breast 




A Well-balanced Udder. 



The Milk Glands and their Functions. 



81 




bone, to be eventually united to the internal thoracic 
vein (the mammary vein of the human). 

The mammary vein then will be accepted as affording 
some indication 
at least of the 
milking capabili- 
ties of a cow. 
Some breeders' 
associations call 
for certain ar- 
rangements of 
those veins, as 
follows: Single 
and double ex- 
tension, single 
and double 

branches, Single A Funnel-shaped Udder. 

and double chest extension, or umbilical (navel) veins. 
The wells vary in number from one to three on each side 
of the animal; they should be of good size. 

The greater the capacity of the arteries and veins con- 
nected with the udder, the larger the milk secretion will 
usually be. Theory and practice then seem to unite 
and back up the ideals of the dairyman, one of which is 
a great development of the mammary veins. The arte- 
rial supply cannot be seen, and only parts of the venous 
system of the udder are visible, viz., the abdominal veins 
and those underlying the skin of the udder, yet reason- 
able conclusions can be drawn from the develoj>ment of 
the milk veins. 






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The Milk Glands and their Functions. 83 

Holding up the Milk. Various theories have been ad- 
vanced to account for this illustration of animal per- 
versity and human peculiarity; the latter probably had 
been shown in the form of abuse, and of course, stamps 
the exhibitor as one not fit to own or milk cows. Wing, 
in ' c Milk and Its Products, ' ' states that the holding of 
the milk is due to the presence of sphincter mucles at the 
branching of the ducts, and that this muscular tissue is 
connected with the abdominal muscles, which if contracted, 
as a result of fright, dislikes, etc., will cause the milk 
to be retained in the udder, or as it is termed the cow 
holds up her milk; so far I have been unable, either by 
dissection of udders or consultation of authorities on 
the anatomy and histology of the udder, to verify his 
statement. Furstenberg states that holding up of the 
milk is due to a congestion of the blood-vessels of the 
teat and gland, which is more tenable than the preced- 
ing theory, as it is well known that congestion interferes 
with the working of any gland. 

Composition of Milk. The composition of milk is at 
the present time engaging the attention of expert 
chemists; such investigations may at first view seem of 
little use to the stockman, yet when he finds himself with 
young animals which must be raised by hand, a knowl- 
edge of the various milks will render him capable of 
securing gains from those animals; which otherwise 
might take years of experimenting to find out. For ex- 
ample, a foal has to be raised by hand; on consulting the 
tables below, mare's milk is found to be richer in sugar 
and poorer in fat than cow's milk, as a consequence he 
will, if obliged to, use cow's milk, add sugar and possibly 



84 



Veterinary Elements. 



dilute with water before giving it to the foal; if bent on 
pushing lambs for the show-ring, the stockman will use 
the best cow's nrifrk he can get, ewe's milk being so 
much richer in fat than that from cows. One ewe's milk 
at the Wisconsin Station tested fourteen per cent, butter 
fat. Milk tends to diminish in quantity and improve in 
richness (per cent, of butter fat) as lactation progresses. 

COMPOSITION OF MILKS. — (HENRY. ) 





Water 


Casein and 
Albumen 


Fat 


Sugar 


Ash 


Mare 


90.78 
87.17 

80.82 
85.4 


1.99 
3.55 
6.52 
6.04 


1.21 
3.69 

6.86 
8.24 


5.67 
4.88 
4.96 
4.75 


35 


Cow 


.71 




89 




1 07 







Fleming, in his Obstetrics, places the animals in the 
order of the richness of their milks, as follows: bitch, 
ewe, goat, sow, cow, camel, Woman, ass, mare. The 
first milk after the birth of the young is richer and 
thicker than ordinary milk, containing a large per cent, 
of albumen and ash, less water, and is termed Colostrum. 
This colostrum is usually secreted during the first four 
or five days after calving. It is intended by Nature to 
remove the fecal matter (meconium) accumulated in the 
bowels of the young animal before birth. This natural 
purgative has done its work when the feces (dung) of 
the young animal changes from a black or dark brown 
to a yellowish color. 

Some breeders when preparing for a milk test get 
their cows up to a rather fat condition previous to calv- 
ing, then when the test begins a short time after coming 
in, the fat on the animal gradually disappears, to reap- 



The Milk Glands and their Functions. 85 

pear in the milk pail, this method, however, is only 
available for a short test. 

In the show-ring various expedients are resorted to 
in order to mystify or deceive the judge. For example, 
one-quarter of an udder may be deficient; the udder is 
balanced up by partially milking out the good quarters, 
leaving the poorly developed one untouched; in some 
cases milk has been pumped into the udder after having 
once been withdrawn. Experts are not, however, de- 
ceived by such practices, the sufferer is usually the cow, 
and therefore indirectly the owner. 

Owing to the fact that bacteria make their way into 
the teats, it is held to be good practice to milk on the 
ground the first few drawings of milk. 



CHAPTER VII. 

THE BLOOD AND LYMPH. 

The discussion of the taking in of food left that food 
in a condition favorable for carriage by the blood, in fact, 
as soon as the food material has passed through the mem- 
branes (whether walls of blood vessels or walls of intes- 
tines) into the blood stream such food was said to be 
absorbed, or absorption had taken place. This absorp- 
tion had, however, all taken place within a compara- 
tively small area, therefore, unless this prepared food 
was distributed through the body it would be of com- 
paratively little use. The selection and use of the food 
brought by the blood to various parts goes on in those 
parts, the waste has to be removed also or disease would 
result. In order for the blood to go to and return from 
the tissues, roads must be provided — arteries and veins — 
the motive power sending the blood to different points 
being supplied by a powerful muscle pump — the heart. 
The lymphatic or absorbent system, consisting of nodes 
and vessels, whose function is to collect not only the nu- 
tritive material by means of the lacteals of the intestines, 
but also to gather up the waste material, all of which 
they empty into the blood stream near the heart will be 
considered as part of the circulation, in fact, owing to 
the color of the fluid they carry, more or less milky in 
the lacteals and colorless in other parts, it has been 
dubbed the white blood system. Blood has two distinct 



The Blood and Lymph. 87 

courses, which have been named according to the desti- 
nation, the set of blood vessels going to and returning 
from the lungs constitute the pulmonary system, the 
other set having the office of distributing the blood to 
and collecting it from the rest of the body being termed 
the systemic circulation. Two branches of the latter are, 
the renal system, going to the kidneys, and the portal 
system, going to the liver. The material carried is a 
reddish liquid, known as the blood. If we draw some 
blood and let it stand for a time it is found to separate 
into a fluid serum and solid portion (clot). The serum 
is a pale yellowish fluid, and the solid portion a deep red. 
If the drawn blood is allowed to stand for a still longer 
time, more fluid will] be noted, while the clot has grown 
smaller. What causes clotting 1 ? The fibrin which is 
formed in the blood. This can be shown by whipping 
the blood with a bundle of twigs, which when withdrawn 
from the blood show stringy threads (fibrin), which are 
thus removed and clotting prevented. These fibrin 
threads imprison in their meshes the blood cells (cor- 
puscles) and thus form the clot, consequently if the fibrin 
is removed no clotting takes place. Clotting (coagula- 
tion) is hastened by (a) moderate warmth, (6) rest, (c) 
contact with foreign matter, (d) free access of air; it is 
retarded by (a) cold, (&) contact with living tissues, (c) 
imperfect aeration, etc. Blood is alkaline in reaction, 
that from the arteries being red in color, that from 
the veins being purplish, relatively speaking, arterial 
(red) blood is pure, venous (purplish) blood impure. 
The blood cells are of two kinds, red (discs) and 
white (irregular in shape), the disc shaped ones 



88 Veterinary Elements. 

being present in the greater numbers, in about the pro- 
portion of 500 to 1. It is interesting to note that the 
white blood cells have the power of motion and thus pass 
through the walls of blood vessels, and also that if a 
white blood cell comes in contact with foreign particles, 
such as germs, coal dust, etc., it will flow around and 
enwrap the object, and thus the particle taken in may be 
carried from one place to another, knowledge of this 
fact aids us in reasoning out the spread of a disease from 
one organ or part of the body to another. 

The white blood corpuscles have been termed the 
policemen or scavengers of the body, should germs gain 
entrance at any point through a wound there is a flock- 
ing of the white cells to the part and a battle royal 
between the germs and the white cells takes place, many 
on both sides are slain and are thrown off from the seat 
of war (the wound) as pus (matter); if, however, the 
body attacked is in good health its white cells win, over- 
come, kill and cast out the slaughtered; if, however, the 
germs are in the majority, the white cells weak, further 
inroads are made by the germs, the disease affects one 
organ after another until the animal or person dies from 
the disease. 

Red blood vessels are about 3 -^u °f an ^ ucn i n diam- 
eter and contain in their substance the hemaglobin or 
red coloring matter of the blood. This red coloring mat- 
ter combines very readily with the oxygen of the air. 
The paleness often noticed in weak animals, whether 
weak from lack of good food, pure air, or as a result of 
loss of blood, is due to a deficiency in number of the red 
cells, and therefore of the red coloring matter. The dif- 



The Blood and Lymph. 89 

fereuce in the contents of the red blood cells before and 
after birth are made use of in the human race for the 
detection of crime. These cells contain a nucleus before 
birth, after they do not, so that in case of the finding of 
a dead child, if no nuclei are found in its red blood cells 
it is assumed that it has lived a day or two, if nuclei are 
found the child was still born. 

White blood cells have an average diameter of ^Vo 0I> 
an inch. 

The amount of blood in the body varies with the ani- 
mal, it has been estimated in the horse to be about equal 
to y 1 ^ of the body weight, in man about -fa. 

The blood pump (heart) is a hollow muscle, cone 
shaped, and in the horse about 5 J lbs. in weight. It is 
situated in the chest cavity between the right and left 
lungs, its apex being downwards. It is divided into two 
well marked halves, each of which is again divided into 
an upper chamber or auricle and a lower chamber or 
ventricle, consequently we speak of the right side of the 
heart and the right auricle, or ventricle, as the case may 
be. The division between the auricles and ventricles is 
not as perfect, being only by valves, as is the division 
between the right and left heart. These valves serve 
another purpose, that of preventing a backward move- 
ment of the blood, in order to do so efficiently, little 
cords of great strength are attached to the valves and 
thus prevent them being pressed back out of place, such 
provision is needed when one thinks of the enormous 
pumping power of this organ. Each chamber of the 
heart has certain openings to it and from it, all guarded 



90 Veterinary Elements. 

openings, one from the right auricle, the other into the 
pulmonary artery. The course of the blood through the 
heart is as follows : 

Starting in the right auricle it flows to the right ventri- 
cle, thence to the lungs by the pulmonary artery, where it 
will be remembered oxygen (O) is exchanged for carbonic 
acid (CO), it is then returned, purified, by the pulmon- 
ary vein to the heart, this time being poured into the 
left auricle, from which it passes to the left ventricle 
and thence by means of the aorta to all parts of the body. 
From the various parts of the body the blood is brought 
back by small veins which unite to form larger ones 
until it is again emptied by the vena cava into that part 
of the heart known as the right auricle, the point from 
which the start was made, thus the blood has made the 
entire circuit. Harvey was the first man to thoroughly 
understand and describe the circulation of the blood. 

Arteries and veins form the channels for the circula- 
tion of blood, the arteries taking the blood from the 
heart, the veins fetching it towards the heart. These 
tubes or channels are made up of three coats, differences 
in which aid us in determining whether we are looking 
at an artery or vein. The inner coat of an artery is com- 
posed of endothelium and some elastic tissue, the middle 
coat is made up of muscular and elastic fibres; the outer 
coat, very strong, is formed of connective tissue and 
elastic fibres, it is far less easily torn than the other 
coats and is more resistant to pressure. Arteries as a 
rule are deeply seated in muscles to avoid injury, com- 
municate freely with one another (anastomosis) and are 
always accompanied by a vein. The inner and middle 



The Blood and Lymph. 91 

coats of veins differ somewhat from those of arteries in 
the tissues present, and thus is accounted for the col- 
lapsed state of the end of a vein when seen in meat, the 
end of an artery remaining open. Many veins have 
valves, especially those of the limbs. When traced to 
their small branches, arteries and veins are seen to be 
continued into a network of small blood vessels or capil- 
laries, therefore for all practical purposes arteries may 
be said to end and veins to start in these capillaries. 

The pulmonary artery springs from the right ventricle 
and terminates in the lung by means of small capillaries 
which are spread over the air cells. 

The main trunk of the arterial system (aorta) starts 
from the left side of the heart and then divides into an 
anterior, supplying the front of the body, and posterior, 
supplying the remainder of the body. The front (ante- 
rior) aorta divides into branches one to each fore limb, 
and is continued up the neck, where it again divides 
into the carotids, and by subdivisions supplies all parts 
of the head and neck. The arteries given off to the fore 
limbs (brachials), again divide and are continued as the 
humerals and later as the radials, it will be noticed that 
the arteries of the limbs take their names from the bone 
they are close to, the radials give off the metacarpals at 
the fetlock, which divide into branches and thus supply 
the fore feet with blood. 

The posterior aorta is directed backwards and upwards 
and runs along underneath the back bone until it reaches 
the loins, where it divides into two trunks, one to each 
hind limb. Before reaching the loins it has given off a 
number of branches to supply the stomach, intestines, 



92 Veterinary Elements. 

liver, kidneys and the reproductive organs. Each trunk 
is known as an iliac, these being continued as feinorals, 
then as tibials and later as metatarsals, small branches 
being given off quite frequently. The latter (metatar- 
sals) are peculiar inasmuch as they are found on the 
outer sides of the hind cannons, and are sometimes cut, 
on plow shares, wire fencing, etc. It has been stated 
that as a rule arteries are deep seated to be out of the 
way of injury. The metatarsals at the hind fetlock 
divide up and from them blood is supplied to the hind 
feet in a similar manner to that supplied to the fore feet 
by the continuations (branchings) of the metacarpals. 

The Veins. The main difference between arteries and 
veins are in their construction and work. Veins are 
usually in twos, deep and superficial, the former with an 
artery. In the veins of the limbs are found valves which 
prevent the passage backwards of the blood. It is often 
a question when blood is coming from a wound as to 
whether that blood is from a vein or from an artery, if 
from an artery the blood comes in spurts (jerks), when 
from a vein, it flows. The vein carrying blood from the 
lungs (pulmonary vein) is an exception to the rest inas- 
much as it carries purified blood. Most veins start in 
the capillaries, the portal vein, however, fetches blood 
from the stomach and intestines to the liver. The arte- 
ries, it was mentioned, kept dividing and subdividing 
until the capillaries were reached, the veins do just the 
opposite in that they keep uniting until a large vein 
(vena cava) is formed, which empties into the right side 
of the heart. The jugular vein in the furrow of the 
neck is the one from which blood is usually drawn in 
cattle and horses. 



The Blood and Lymph. 93 

The Lymphatic System. This system consists of ves- 
sels and nodes (glands), the latter term nodes being sub- 
stituted for glands, owing to the fact that these nodes do 
not secrete, hence it would be wrong to term them 
glands. The system might be compared to a line of 
railway with the nodes as the stopping places. The nodes 
are bean shaped and can be readily found in the animal 
after death, e. g., between the lungs, on the inside of the 
limbs, thighs and in the folds of the mesentery, when if 
cut in halves the outer part is seen to be lighter in color 
than the inner, they resemble a very small kidney in 
fact; from these nodes are sent out leucocytes (white 
blood cells). The vessels originate as very small chan- 
nels in the spaces between the cells of the body, especially 
those of the serous membranes. Lymphatic vessels are 
found in all parts of the body, those in the limbs possess 
valves; these vessels unite and gradually form larger 
vessels, until the thoracic duct is formed, which runs 
along underneath the back bone and empties into the 
vena cava. The lymphatic nodes are markedly affected 
in many diseases, such as tuberculosis, etc. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

THE NERVOUS SYSTEM. 

Fortunately for the stockman and the veterinarian, 
farm stock do not suffer from "nerves", such attacks 
occurring at inconvenient times, although the domesti- 
cated animals are very easily frightened and certain ani- 
mals are sometimes irritable, it is as a rule in the latter 
case especially modified or cured by plenty of work. 
The organs going to make up this system and their func- 
tions, therefore, will only receive a brief consideration. 
The brain, spinal cord and the nerve fibres make up the 
nervous system, which has the faculty of receiving and 
interpreting impressions, more or less under the control 
of the animal; it also has the regulating of the vital 
functions, such as milk secretion, bowel movements, the 
heart's action, etc., which are not under the direct con- 
trol of the animal. In order to render the study of the 
nervous system easier we divide it into (a) cerebro spinal 
and (b) sympathetic systems. The first division (a), 
which is made up of the brain, composed of four parts, 
the spinal cord, the nerves originating from the brain, 
and the chain originating from the spinal cord. The 
nerves of the first division have been termed nerves of 
animal life as distinguished from those of the second 
division (b), termed nerves of organic life. Nerve tissue 
is made up of white and grey matter. Nerves consist of 
bundles of fine fibres enclosed in a sheath; along the 



The Nervous System. 95 

course of some nerves are enlargements termed ganglia. 
The nerve ends take the form of loops or bulbs according 
to their locality, e. g., as loops in muscles, as bulbs in 
mucous membranes. A nerve fibre retains its individu- 
ality its entire length, if a nerve is cut across the ends do 
not unite or grow together, the part away from its source 
of nutrition dies. 

A. The Brain. The large portion of the brain is known 
as the cerebrum; this portion is the seat of the intellect. 
The faculties of reason and memory are derived from 
the cerebrum. This part of the brain is located under- 
neath the forehead. From the base of the brain originate 
the twelve pairs of cranial nerves, some of which go to 
supply sensation to the ear, eye, tongue, nose, etc. The 
cerebellum is an organ with the power of co-ordinating 
muscular movement, that is to say, it controls the mus- 
cular parts, moves them in the right direction and at 
the right time. For example, the crossing of the limbs 
when walking by the intoxicated person shows lack of 
co-ordination. 

The Pons connects the various other parts of the brain, 
some of the fibres going to make up the cranial nerves 
originate here. The Medulla oblongata may be consid- 
ered as a prolongation of the spinal cord, it forms a 
pathway for nerve impulses to and from the brain, gives 
origin to some of the cranial nerves, and contains the 
centers or headquarters to which the nerves governing 
the heart, lungs, circulation and part of the digestive 
tract bring messages and receive orders, thus the nerve 
centers controlling mastication, swallowing, sucking, 
vomiting, breathing, coughing, secreting saliva, and the 



96 Veterinary Elements. 

diabetic center are located in this division of the brain. 
Injury to the medulla generally results in instantaneous 
death, breathing being at once stopped. 

The spinal cord is located in the spinal canal, a hollow, 
bony cavity running through the vertabrre; this canal is 
of far greater size than the cord, thus allowing room for 
extreme movements, such as bending the head around to 
the side. The spinal cord might be considered as an 
immense telegraph cable, made up of a number of small 
cables or wires, each carrying its own message. Some 
of the fibres (tracts) cross at the upper part of the cord, 
and for this reason an injury on one side of the brain 
will show paralysis on the opposite side of the body. 
The cord is also of interest because it contains the fol- 
lowing nerve centers: the ano-spinal, in the region of the 
loins, controls the passage of feces; the vesico-spinal, in 
the same locality, governs the passage of urine; the 
centers governing the sexual organs are also located in 
the region of the loins; centers controlling the blood ves- 
sels (vaso-motor centers) and nutrition of tissues (trophic 
centers) are found throughout the cord. An unfortu- 
nate result of nerving horses sometimes is seen in the 
sloughing of the entire foot; such illustrates the control 
of the nutrition of a part by nerves as well as the prop- 
erty of sensation given by them to a part. Injury to the 
upper part of the spine shows in paralysis of the lower 
part of the body, and the continual passage of urine and 
feces, or else complete stoppage of these functions. In 
addition to the above functions, the spinal cord gives off 
pairs of spinal nerves, at such points it is enlarged cor- 
responding to the number given off, which leave by two 



The Nervous System. 97 

roots, one motor ( the lower) the other sensitive, (upper) 
they unite and later on are combined as a mixed nerve, 
distributing their upper fibres to the spinal muscles and 
skin, the lower to the sides and lower parts of the trunk 
and limbs; fibres also being sent to join the other 
(b-or sympathetic) system. The nerves of the limbs are 
derived from large plexuses in the armpit and groin, 
and are generally deep-seated, accompanying the arteries 
in their course. B. The Sympathetic system is found 
underneath the spinal column as two chains, with en- 
largements along their course, as has been stated; they 
are the basis of nerve supply to the organs of nutrition, 
such as the lungs, liver, heart, intestines, blood vessels, 
etc. Surrounding the brain and spinal cord are three 
membranes ( duramater, arachnoid and piamater) be- 
tween them a fluid is found, the purpose of these is to 
protect such sensitive and important structures (the brain 
and cord) from concussion and injury. The proportion- 
ate size of the brain and spinal cord varies in different 
animals according to the place they occupy in the scale of 
intelligence; thus the greater the weight of the brain the 
lighter the spinal cord, e. ,//.. in Man the brain weighs 
fifty ounces, the cord one and one-half ounces; in the 
horse the brain weighs twenty-three ounces, the cord 
ten and one-half ounces: the proportions respectively 
being 33 to 1 and 2.2 to 1. The convolutions of the 
cerebrum are separated by depressions (sulci), the 
deeper these are the higher the intelligence. Captain 
Hayes rates the intelligence of animals in the follow- 
ing descending scale: Man, dog, cat, ass, pig, horse, 
ox. The nervous system of animals therefore may be 



9,8 Veterinary Elements. 

considered as simple when compared with that of man, 
consequently the known list of nervous troubles in farm 
stock is comparatively small. Roaring in horses is prob- 
ably the most frequently observed in the list, latterly 
stringhalt, milk fever, tetanus have been removed from 
the list of pure nervous diseases. 

THE SPECIAL SENSES. 

The organs of the special senses are the eye, ear, nose, 
and tongue; there remains for description, which must 
necessarily be brief, the two former. 

TJie Eye is the organ of vision and owing to the ease 
with which it may be destroyed or affected becomes at 
once an object of importance to the stock man, especially 
so when engaged in the raising and marketing of horses. 
It is protected by the eyelids, eyelashes, and the haw 
(membrana nictitans) or winking eyelid and the tear 
apparatus. The eye may be compared to a ball having 
a watch glass (cornea) fitted in at the front, its work 
being similar to that of a camera. 

The ball (eye) consists of three layers, outer (scler- 
otic and cornea), middle (choroid and iris), inner (reti- 
na), enclosed in these layers are substances termed hu- 
mors, which have various functions. The fluid in the 
front part of the eye is termed the aqueous humor and is 
for the purpose of giving shape to that part of the eye, 
it is quite watery and is being constantly secreted during 
life; as a result of operations some of it may be drained 
away, but is replaced by more fluid later on ; behind this 
fluid is the crystalline lens made up of layers resembling 
an onion, the eye is focussed by movements of the lens. 



The Nervous System. 99 

The vitreous humor, a jelly-like mass fills up the bulk of 
the eye, and is located back of the lens, once destroyed 
is never reproduced. The inner coat, retina, is the dis- 
tribution of the optic nerve (nerve of sight) and is con- 
sequently the most important structure in the eye. 

The choroid coat lines the sclerotic, at its front por- 
tion is attached a muscular curtain, the iris, located in 
front of the crystalline lens. This curtain (iris) is pierced 
in its center by an opening, which varies in shape in the 
different animals and is known as the pupil. This open- 
ing is dilated or contracted, by two sets of muscular 
fibres, according to the amount of light the sensitive 
structures of the eye are able to take in. The color of 
the eyes is due to the iris, in most horses it is of a brown- 
ish yellow tint, in others white or grey, when the latter 
color, the horse is said to be wall-eyed; at the upper 
border of the pupil of the horse little black sooty look- 
ing dots are seen, these are the corpora nigra, they are 
said to absorb rays of light. 

The outer covering, sclerotic coat, is hard and fibrous, 
and receives the attachment of the muscles of the eye- 
ball, it is opaque; at its front portion is inserted the cor- 
nea (watchglass), a delicate transparent membrane made 
up of layers of cells; between these layers as a result of 
inflammation material may be deposited, such is often 
thought by people ignorant of the construction of the 
cornea to be a scum; it is important to remember that 
this is not the case and that therefore the use of strong 
irritants such as powdered alum or powdered glass is not 
only cruel but wrong and never beneficial. The eyelids 
are two movable curtains having in their free edges hairs 

LofC. 



100 Veterinary Elements. 

(eyelashes) and glands. The eyelashes are to prevent 
the entrance of particles of dirt, the gland's secretion 
retains the tears, in sick animals the secretion of these 
glands is seen at the inner corner of the eyes as a sticky 
matter. 

The haw, or membrana nictitans is placed at the inner 
corner of the eye, it is somewhat gristly in its nature 
and has the important function of removing dirt from 
the eye. Its development depends on the use of other 
members of the body to remove dirt, etc., e. g., in cat- 
tle it is quite large, whereas in man and monkeys it is 
very small, the latter being able to remove foreign matter 
by their hands; its functions being known, none but ignor- 
ant poisons will remove it unless diseased. In lock-jaw 
l tetanus) it may be seen to be rapidly passed over the 
eye, if the head is raised or the animal excited, in 
such oasos it aids in the detection of this serious trouble. 

The tear machinery consists of (1) a gland which secretes 
the tears, situated at the upper part of the eye, (2) a 
little round reddish brown body in the inner corner of 
the eye, which directs the tears to (3) the ducts, which 
carry those tears to the nasal cavity (q. v.). Tears in 
animals are for the purpose of moistening the eye ball 
and to wash off small particles of dirt, it is doubtful if 
they are at all the result of the emotions as in the human. 
properly speaking ''tears" are an accumulation of the 
secretion of the lachrymal glands, and as such, although 
the term lias been applied to the secretion, cannot be 
said to exist normally in the animal. The conjunctiva 
may be considered as a continuation of the skin, joining 
the eyelids and eyeball, it is very vascular, containing a 



The Nervous System. 101 

large number of fine blood vessels, this characteristic 
is made use of in the detection of disease. 

Above and behind the eye is a pad of fat, filling up 
the hollow space there, in old animals the fat partially 
disappears. The eyes should be clear and free from 
tears, the pupils black, the eyelids thin and free from 
wrinkles. Small eyes in horses are termed "pig eyes' 7 
and are considered as a sign of inferior breeding. Horses 
showing much white in their eyes are often suspected of 
viciousness, if the ears are laid back and the teeth shown 
such a suspicion is likely warranted. The eyes should 
be placed wide apart, thus giving the wide forehead 
considered by many as one indication of a pleasant, rea- 
sonable disposition. 

The ears or organs of hearing are rather complex inter- 
nally, the outer portion, consisting of cartilage (gristle) 
covered with skin, being all that is of much interest to 
the stockman. The erect, alert ear is desired as being 
an indication of health and vigor, although in horses, 
the lopped ears are not always indicative of ill health or 
the tired feeling; in sheep, however, the ears droop con- 
siderably during sickness. The ears should be fine, thin 
and lean so that they are semi-transparent, all evidences 
of breeding. Horses suffering from blindness have quick 
moving, restless ears. 

The external ear is gristly and contains sebaceous 
glands, the secretion of which gives the color to the 
inside of the ear, bright yellow being desired by the 
dairyman. In the external ear is the entrance to the 
middle ear containing the ear drum and small bones, 
internal still in the nerve of hearing located in the inner 



102 Veterinary Elements. 

ear. Horses sometimes become deaf when shot over 
during hunting expeditions, the deafness in some cases 
being temporary, in others permanent. 

The Skin. Along with the skin such structures as hair, 
horn and glands (sebaceous and sweat) are found, the 
glands have already been described. 

The skin covers the body and by so doing aids in reg- 
ulating the temperature of that body, it also is the organ 
of touch. 

Examination of this covering shows it to consist of two 
layers, one on the surface, the epidermis, containing 
nerves and pigment granules, the latter gives color to 
the skin, and the dermis, which contains nerves and 
blood vessels; like all other tissues, these divisions of the 
skin are made up of cells, arranged in layers, the upper 
ones of which are being gradually changed to meet out- 
side conditions and are eventually shed. 

Among stockmen the condition of the skin is consid- 
ered an indication not only of health, but of breeding 
and ability to use the food furnished to the best advan- 
tage. In horses the glossy coat with fine hair is so much 
desired, in beef cattle the following essentials are called 
for, often included under the special term — handling — 
such are a soft, silky coat of thick, furry hair (in winter), 
a pliable skin of good thickness, with a mellow cushion 
underneath. In the dairy cow that same pliability of 
the skin, which must be somewhat thinner than in the 
beef type, is desired. In sheep the color affords the best 
indication, a pink color being much approved of by 
shepherds. 

Hair grows from the hair follicles, which are a folding 
in of the epidermis to form deep narrow depressions; 



The Nervous System. 103 

these depressions are well supplied with nutriment, and 
are lined with cells from which are developed hairs. 
Hairs are placed obliquely (on the slant), and by means 
of a little muscle placed close to their roots, are brought 
into the upright position, the effects of which are seen 
in boars and dogs when excited, other conditions, such 
as ill-health, cold, etc., have the same effect. Each hair 
is enlarged at the enclosed end, and is lodged in a hair 
follicle. The whiskers or cat hairs seen on the lips of 
horses and cats are furnished with nerves which render 
these hairs very sensitive. The term horse hair refers 
to the hair of the mane, forelock, tail and fetlocks, and 
in some breeds, notably Shires, to the strong coarse hair 
at the knee and hock. In the pig the term u bristles " 
denote hair; in sheep, where it is very fine, long and 
wavy, it is known as wool; in the mule and ass, the 
forelock and mane are either lacking or else only partially 
developed, the hair of the tail in these animals being 
limited in quantity; in cattle, the development of hair at 
the end of the tail is known as "the switch. " The 
escutcheon of cows, held by some to be an indication of a 
cow's milking qualities, is formed by the two-way-direc- 
tion of the hair on the back part of the thighs; from the 
udder, the hair being directed upwards, on the outside 
of the thighs it takes the opposite directions; the oppo- 
site directions of the hair on the backs of pigs constitute 
swirls. The color of the hair varies in animals at dif- 
ferent periods of their lives, e. g., the iron gray horse as 
it ages grows whiter; the color is also affected by wounds, 
old scars often growing white or gray hairs; the foal is 
generally an entirely different color to what it is at ma- 



104 Veterinary Elements. 

turity. The hair is a valuable aid to determine the 
quality of an animal; coarse hair means a coarse skin: 
waviness in the hair of the tail, a sign of want of breed- 
ing. The long hair on the legs of heavy horses is dub- 
bed "the feather, " and the term silky denotes the 
quality desired. The claim of more endurance for some 
colored horses than for others is stoutly upheld by many 
horsemen — it is more probable that the conformation, 
and not the color, was at fault. Capt. Hayes says that 
dark -colored horses endure the heat better than light- 
colored ones. Favorite colors in horses are determined 
by Fashion, and that controls the market to some extent, 
especially with regard to coachers. saddlers, roadsters, 
etc, Every one possibly has heard it said " that a good 
horse cannot be a bad color," and also that if a horse 
has one white foot buy him. two try him, etc., be that as 
it may, great splashings of white are not desired on the 
body, unless tor the circus. Coal black horses fetch high 
prices for funeral purposes. The location of the white 
markings on horses, have been named, thus rendering 
description of those animals more easy, e. g., a small 
patch of white in the center of the forehead is called a 
star, if the patch is larger it is dubbed a blaze, and if 
the white spreads over the face, the term bald is often 
applied; "snip" refers to a little patch of white on 
either lip; "white stocking" and "white sock" refer 
to markings on the limbs, the former up to the knee or 
hock, the latter to the fetlocks. Gray horses are very 
liable to what is named — Melanosis — black tumors, we 
may term them, and although removal is sometimes per- 
formed, unless they interfere with the health of the ani- 
mal they should be let alone. 



The Nervous System. 105 

The hair grows according to the climate, season, food, 
etc., and is shed at certain seasons of the year: in poultry 
the condition is known as u moulting, ' ' the feathers in 
fowl representing the hairs of animals. The character 
and quality of the hair varies with the breeding, e. g., 
in Galloway and Angus cattle. Showmen of horses, 
cattle and sheep blanket their charges to improve the 
condition of the skin and hair; poultrymen confine their 
birds to the shady places to avoid " brassiness of the 
plumage ' ' due to the sun 1 s rays. The hair preserves 
the skin from wet, cold and the direct action of the 
sun's rays. Intimately related to the hair are those 
structures known as the horns of cattle and sheep, the 
chestnuts of horses and asses, and the coverings of the 
foot, termed hoofs in the horse, ass and mule, and claws 
in sheep, swine, cattle, etc. 

The horns vary in size and shape according to the breed 
and sex, they grow from the matrix at their base; they 
are more or less hollowed out, the frontal sinuses being 
continued into them. 

The Chestnuts. These bare horny structures are said 
by some people to represent an evolutionary stage 
through which the horse has gone, they are found on 
the inside of the fore arm and on the upper part of the 
inner face of the hind cannons. 

The Ergots in horses are found growing from the skin 
of the fetlock and correspond to the hard sole of animals 
that walk on their soles (Man, dog, cat). In cattle 
they are undeveloped digits. Chestnuts and ergots are 
better developed in the underbred horse than in the 
well-bred animal. 



CHAPTER IX. 

THE FOOT— ITS CARE AND SHOEING. 

The Hoof and its Contents. The importance of this 
organ in animals cannot be overestimated, in the horse 
especially are good feet needed; without good feet his 
value is lessened according to the degree his work is 
interfered with. While cattle, sheep and swine are not 
used for draught purposes, yet they also should have 
good feet, in order to render their getting to the feed 
trough and market sure, and in those used for breeding, 
to render them capable of performing that valuable func- 
tion. The foot consisting of the hoof and its contents will 
therefore be described, that of the horse being taken as 
the type. Approaching the foot from the outside the 
hoof is first reached, seemingly a continuation of the 
skin, which it is. The hoof is divided into the wall, sole 
and frog, the wall being that part seen when the foot is 
on the ground. The wall is also divided into parts, viz., 
the toe, quarters, heels, bars, surfaces and borders. The 
toe forms the front of the hoof and is the deepest and 
thickest part of the wall, passing back it grows shorter 
at the quarters, that part midway between toe and heel, 
passing back still further the heel is reached, at which 
point the wall makes a sharp turn inwards and forwards 
until it meets near the point of the frog, the continuation 
of the wall from the opposite heel; the wall thus forms 
an acute angle at the heels and it is at this point where 



The Foot — Its Care and Shoeing. 107 

corns are usually found; these inturned portions of the 
wall are called "the bars" and act as braces to the foot, 
consequently they should not be cut any lower than is 
absolutely necessary. The outer surface of the wall is 
rounded and covered by its protector, the hoof varnish 
(periople) which should not be removed by the rasp, 
such removal exposes the horn to the softening, drying 
and destroying influences of the weather, the horn of the 
wall is not meant to be soft, it has to bear weight, on the 
other hand it is not improved by a drying out process of 
which brittleness is the result; it is, however, interesting 
to note that the feet of horses grown in dry countries are 
more durable than those of horses raised in wet countries 
(Points of the Horse, Hayes). The growth of horn is 
similar to that of plants, excessive moisture being bad 
for both. The internal surface of the hoof presents from 
five to six hundred little parallel plates known as the 
horny or insensitive laminae. The leaves (laminae) are 
separated from one another by deep grooves into which 
fit the corresponding sensitive leaves (laminae). In a 
groove at the upper part of the wall lies the coronary 
cushion (band), from it is developed the wall. The infe- 
rior border of the wall is that part to which the shoe is 
attached and when unshod is in contact with the ground. 
The slope of the wall should be that given by an angle 
of 50° and should conform somewhat to the slope of the 
pastern; the outer surface of the wall should be smooth 
naturally, and straight from the coronet to the ground. 

In the show-ring the artifices of the groom often come 
into play for those horses having a poor or broken wall, 
in such cases the broken space is filled with wax or the 



108 Veterinary Elements. 

entire foot is coated with gutta-percha, ends of nails 
being inserted in the material to further aid in the decep- 
tion, consequently it is well in all cases to thoroughly 
examine, excessive smoothness of the horn in old horses 
being always open to suspicion. 

The Sole is a thick plate of horn on the under surface 
of the foot, filling the space between the bars and lower 
edge of the wall. Its upper surface is convex and receives 
the sensitive structure above, its lower one is concave, 
depending of course on the animal. The tendency of 
the sole to flatten increases with work and age; an exces- 
sively wide spread heel will tend to let down the sole. 
The sole should be strong, concave on its under side and 
(if lair thickness, the sole tissue flakes off during wear. 
Bruises of the sole usually show by a discoloration; the 
sole is not intended to bear any great amount of weight; 
in its union with the wall it forms what is termed the 
white line, the back (posterior) border of the sole is V 
shaped and inns into the angle formed by the bars and 
wall. The frog is a mass of spongy horn lodged between 
the bars designed to receive a considerable portion of 
the weight of the body and by its elasticity to diminish 
concussion, on its under surface is a small depression 
known as the cleft; its upper surface presents small open- 
ings to receive the sensitive parts above, in its center is 
an elevation corresponding to the cleft, known as the 
tiogstay. Inside of the sensitive structure are the bones 
of the foot; these bones may be said to represent the 
human foot, the sensitive structures the stocking and the 
hoof the boot. 

The lateral cartilages, two half- moon shaped pieces of 
gristle found at the upper part of the quarters, are of 



The Foot — Its Care and Shoeing. 109 

interest because so often affected, being turned into bone 
(ossified) and thus rendered immovable; the cartilages 
are attached below to the wings of the pedal bones. 

The sensitive laminse may be considered as growths or 
continuations of the coronary cushion and it is important 
to remember that the band (coronary cushion) on account 
of its manner of growth should on no account be cut 
through or the shape and appearance of the foot will be 
injured; if by any means the wall is stripped so as to 
leave the laminae bare, those leaves seem to grow rap- 
idly; it has been said, that these lamina 1 are sensitive, 
such being the case, the severe pain shown when a horse 
is foundered (laminitis) is thus accounted for. The 
hoof is developed from the skin, the horny material com- 
ing from the superficial layer of the skin, the sensitive 
structures from the deep layer, such being the case it is 
readily understood how the hoof and skin are alike in 
color. The hoof is made of fibres resembling hairs, 
stuck together, with a downward and forward direction. 
It seems to be the accepted opinion that white hoofs are 
more delicate, porous and prone to disease than are dark 
colored ones. The growth of the hoof downwards and 
forwards is uniform in the healthy foot, the rate of 
growth is about a third of an inch a month; hind hoofs 
grow faster than front ones, and unshod faster than shod. 
The conditions favoring growths are — exercise, moisture 
and barefootedness; the time required for the hoof to 
grow from the coronet to the ground at the toe is 12 
months, at the quarters 6 to 8 months, and at the heels 
3 to 5 months. 

Hoof Ointments do not affect the horn already se- 
creted, but may stimulate the growth of horn from the 



110 Veterinary Elements. 

coronet. When weight is put on the foot there is a 
widening out at the quarters, top and bottom, the height 
thus being lessened, and the sole becomes natter; weight 
is then thrown on the lower bones, which sink down and 
back, the corona (short pastern bone) presses down the 
fatty cushion, which in turn pushes out the lateral cartil- 
ages, and if movable, these cartilages push out the wall 
at the quarters; the pressure brought to bear upon the 
frog due to the earth' s resistance presses it and the bars 
outwards. The result of all these movements are: 1, 
to protect the body from shocks; 2, to aid and increase 
the spring (elasticity ) of the limb, thus giving an easy 
untiring gait, besides limiting concussion; 3, to increase 
the circulation of the foot, and thus ensure a proper 
growth of horn. ]S T o portion of the body will retain its 
usefulness unless used; Nature is firm in her laws and 
does not supply nourishment in the form of blood to parts 
not in use, consequently if a good frog is desired, it must 
not, by shoeing or other means, be relieved from receiv- 
ing pressure. 

The claws of cattle and sheep really consist of two 
halves of feet, the division in the bones starting at the 
fetlock. The space between the hoof is termed the cleft, 
and at its upper surface in sheep a gland is situated 
which may get blocked with dirt, etc., and thus cause sore- 
ness in the feet. All animals need their feet attended 
to at regular intervals, neglect results jn deformity and 
disease, especially so is this the case in colts kept in box 
stalls and in cattle and sheep. An examination will 
often show the horn grown long and curled in under the 
heels, sometimes large pieces are broken out of the wall. 
In the stables abundance of clean, dry bedding should 



The Foot — Its Care and Shoeing. Ill 

be used. No animal should have to stand in wet or 
muddy places for any considerable length of time or such 
diseases as foot rot, thrush and canker will result. 

A good hoof should be straight in the wall, no hollows' 
or unevenness, no cracks or fissures when felt with the 
palm of the hand, it should be smooth; a rough, harsh 
feeling and a dry appearance indicates brittleness. The 
bulbs of the heels should be rounded and strong, the sole 
concave (hollow) and not separated from the wall at the 
white line. The frog should be strong, well developed 
with its cleft broad, dry and shallow, no unpleasant 
smell should be present. The bars should have a for- 
ward and inward direction to the point of the frog, there 
should be no stains in the sole at the heels, while the 
lateral cartilages should be elastic to the finger touch, 
the periople should not have been rasped away. In cat- 
tle and sheep the wall should be trimmed to about the 
level of the sole, and the points of the toes rounded off. 

Shoeing. On account of the artificial condition that 
animals, particularly horses, are subjected to, special 
treatment of the feet had to be provided, such treatment, 
a necessary evil though it is, evil because it interferes 
more or less with the natural action of the foot, is termed 
shoeing. 

Horseshoeing is an art dating from the Gauls before 
the Christian era, William the Conqueror is said to have 
introduced shoeing into England. Napoleon's disastrous 
retreat from Moscow was made worse from lack of horse- 
shoeing, and as modern warfare employs horses for cav- 
alry and artillery purposes to a greater extent than for- 
merly, horseshoeing becomes a necessity. In the more 



112 Veterinary Elements. 

important and more peaceful walks of life, such as agri- 
culture, etc., horseshoeing is just as important, as the 
getting of the products to markets, etc., depends to a 
large extent on the preparedness of the horse; in field 
work, such as plowing, harrowing and other farm opera- 
tions, shoes are better dispensed with if possible, the feet 
will, however, still require regular attention. 

The special objects of shoeing are: 

1. To protect the hoof from excessive wear: 2, to ena- 
ble the feet to get sure footing on ice or slippery roads; 
.'!. bo overcome as near as possible faulty conformation, 
balancing the toot and limb as it might be termed; and, 
4. to cure or improve diseased conditions of the foot. 
The feet of colts should rarely be shod, in fact refrain 
from shoeing as long as possible. When horses are shod 
the shoes should be removed every four to six weeks, 
the excess of horn rasped away and the shoes refitted; it 
is important to remember that the excess of horn, the 
result of growth, be removed, in the past people cut off 
too much, nowadays many have gone almost to the other 
extreme. If horses are to go barefooted more horn should 
be left, the sharp outer edge of the wall should be rounded 
with the rasp to avoid splitting of the wall, loose flakes 
of the sole or frog being cut off. The wear of a shoe is 
due to friction between it and the ground, the wear may 
be natural (normal) as in a sound young horse; or unnat- 
ural (abnormal) in an unsound horse, e. g. , wear of the 
toe in navicular disease and spavin, wear of the heel in 
laminitis (founder). On the upper surface of the shoe 
marks of wear are seen due to the play of the quarters, 
at this point can often be noted the slope, whether inten- 



The Foot — Its Care and Shoeing. 113 



tional or not, of the heels of a shoe, such a slope, if 
inwards assisting to close the heels, or if outwards to 
open them, such a bearing and direction should not be 
given, the shoe surface should be perfectly level. When 
about to examine the foot or remove a shoe always see 
that the animal can stand comfortably on three legs, 
then by passing the hand down the limb to be lifted, 
pinch slightly with the thumb and first finger just above 
the fetlock, the foot will usually be lifted by the animal, 
to hold it easily, grasp the toe of the foot and thus let 
the animal bear its own weight; in removal of the shoe 
a firmer grip is necessary. All clinches should be lifted 
before trying to pull off the iron, and when doing so 
avoid twisting of the foot, or injury to the joints at that 
part will result. The greater number of shoeing smiths 
are more competent to judge of the amount of trimming 
and cutting required by a hoof than is the average horse 
owner; the trouble is usually that people do not take 
their horses to the smith often enough. The frog should 
be left prominent, so that it will project beyond the bear- 
ing surface of the quarters and thus limit the amount of 
jar. As the bars are inflections of the walls, and there- 
fore meant to support weight, they should not be cut away. 
The pattern of the shoe for the sound foot is immaterial 
so long as its bearing is true and level and rests on the 
walls and bars. The shoe surface should be wide enough to 
cover the wall and white line, the web being wider at 
the toe than at the heels. Toe and heel calks are better 
dispensed with unless on slippery roads. Avoid excess 
of weight in shoes; for that purpose steel and aluminum 
are used. Horses are made to go high by leaving on lots 
8 



1 1 4 Veterinary Elements. 

of foot or by weighting with heavy shoes, the weight 
being placed at or near the toe, therefore, the extreme 
high action shown by some horses may be considered as 
more or less artificial : education has a great deal to do 
with high action, as it is well known by horsemen that 
the so-called high-stepping breeds need educating in 
order to get the highest action out of them. 

Hoofs of working horses should be picked out and 
cleaned daily. The ground surface of shoes should be 
flat, or rolled slightly at the toe. 

In order to examine the hind foot, if the animal is at 
all unreliable, stand with back to the horse's head; if 
the near hind foot is to be examined, stand on that side 
and run the left hand gently, but firmly, down the limb, 
beginning on the top of the rump, until the hamstring is 
reached, just above the point of the hock, grasp that part 
firmly then with the open right hand, palm up, grasp 
the leg just at the pastern, lift and place on the thigh. 
Various defects of the gait, such as forging and interfer- 
ing, contracted feet are rectified or improved by shoeing. 

Forging is a defect of the gait, due mainly to conforma- 
tion, being higher at croup than at withers, long legs 
and short bodies, or legs too much underneath the body. 
It may be due to weakness, laziness, bad shoeing, or the 
delight of hearing the clicking sound. The noise (click- 
ing) is made by one hind foot or shoe striking the front 
shoe of the same side. 

To correct the trouble give the feet their proper slope, ' 
about fifty degrees, by lowering either the heels or toes. 
The hind shoes must be no longer and no wider than the 
hoof: the hind shoes should be shortened at the toe, the 



The Foot — Its Care and Shoeing. 115 

lower edge rounded, no toe clip, and the shoe fitted so 
that three-fourths of the thickness of the wall at the toe 
will extend beyond the shoe; in some cases the use of 
heavier shoes in front, say 14 ounces, in front, 6 to 8 
ounces behind, is advisable; always drive the horse well 
in hand, so that he goes up on the bit, the gait cannot be 
collected unless the driver handles the reins properly. 
If a front shoe is struck by a hind foot of the opposite 
side that is known as cross-firing. 

Interfering may be applied to brushing and speedy cut- 
ting, the former is the wounding of the fetlock by the 
inner quarter of a shoe or foot of the opposite leg; speedy 
cutting is the wounding of the leg near the knee or hock 
by its fellow on the opposite side. Horses that turn 
their toes out are liable to interfere; knock-kneed horses 
will also speedy cut. It is a very dangerous vice in sad- 
dlers, bad enough in drivers. This disease needs the 
expert shoer who will have to study his patient, drive 
behind him and probably shoe a few times before en- 
tirely curing him. If unshod, horses rarely brush. The 
wall of the outside quarter of the foot struck may be 
lowered, and the striking edge of the shoe eased off with 
a file. A shoe heavier on its outside web than on its 
inside half will often relieve the condition. The use of 
some form of boot is recommended, wounds made will 
need general antiseptic treatment, Friar' s balsam is very 
useful. Young horses often grow out of this trouble, as 
soon as wearied the colt should be unhitched. Thomas 
Co whey, before the Master Shoers' Association, says: 
' ' Interfering is due to lack of strength in the hind parts, 
leg weariness and too heavy shoes. The remedy — use as 



116 Veterinary Elements. 

» 

light a shoe as possible, and if all else fails use strings of 
interfering rubber beads as low on the fetlock as possible, 
which must be removed as soon as the drive is over." 

Corns are usually due to improper shoeing, or a loose 
shoe; cutting away of the bars lets the wall curl in on 
the seat of corns, or the smith may rasp down the bars 
and wall and not remove the piece of the sole in the 
angle thus formed, thus bringing pressure on a part not 
meant to bear pressure. Excessive growth of the heels, 
or the pressure of a stone on the sole which has been too 
much thinned. To correct, use a bar shoe after the usual 
treatment, or let the animal go bare footed. 

Laminitis (founder), the use of the rolled heel and toe 
shoe, the bar shoe or some of the patent pads to be found 
in the market will often render a lame horse workable; 
if the sole drops use a wide webbed shoe, and a leather 
sole packed with tar and oakum. 

Contracted feet are usually the result of poor shoeing, 
either by raising the heels too high and taking away the 
natural frog pressure, or by the use of shoes with an in- 
ward slope of the upper surface of the shoe heel; the 
causes indicate the cure, barefootedness is as good as any. 

Horses difficult to shoe may have the fore foot of the 
same side tied up, and by means of hobble and rope draw 
back the hind foot. Sometimes the disinclination to 
stand is due to the animal being thrown out of balance 
by the smith drawing the hind leg out too far from the 
body, therefore, always see that the horse is able to stand, 
which may be aided by turning the head to the side op- 
posite to the foot to be lifted. The rope twitch can also 
be used, the foot being kept raised by tying it to the tail. 




Shoe with weight in the 
toe; extends the.stride. 



A plain plate. 



A side weight shoe, 
causing a horse to go 
wider behind. 



TYPES OF SHOES. 

A heel weight rolling 
motion toe shoe; short- 
ens the stride and gives 
more knee action. 

A rolling toed shoe, in- 
tended to quicken the 
stride of a dweller. 

A scoop toed hind shoe, 
breaks over more rap- 
idly than if calked. 



A side weight shoe for 
a knee bumper. 

Scoop toe shoe, the 
scoop taking the place of 
the calk. 

Shoe with heel side 
weight, useful where the 
ankle rolls out, strength- 
ening it and giving it 
wider action. 



118 Veterinary Elements. 

If a kicker, tie up a front foot first, then a hobble to the 
hind foot to be lifted, take a rope (one-half inch) 20 feet 
long, fasten to the tail, then run the two free ends through 
the ring of the hobble, one from each side, the ends are 
now held by two men, standing at right angles to the 
horse, one on each side of the limb, as they pull the leg 
is lifted, the fore leg should be let down before attempt- 
ing to lift the hind one. 

Location of points or parts in animals. The accom- 
panying figure will give the novice an idea of the loca- 
tion of the various points in dairy cattle; in a general 
way the figure can be used for other classes of live stock. 

The poll is the space between and just behind the horns 
of cattle and ears of horses. 

The forehead, that part of the head from the base of 
the ears to a line drawn from the inner corners of the 
eyes. 

The forelock, the tuft of hair between the ears. 

The face (4), that portion between the level of the eyes 
and the muzzle. 

The muzzle (5) includes the nostrils and the lips, in pigs 
known as the snout. 

The crest is the upper part of the neck from the ears to 
the withers. 

The brisket or breast (12); the shoulder tops (11) by 
some authorities are termed crops in cattle, although the 
usually accepted location by most people is that indi- 
cated by the number 13. 

The icithers have already been mentioned, 11 shows 
the location clearly enough. 

The arm is located about the line dividing the shoulder 
from the leg in the figure. 



120 Veterinary Elements. 

The fort- arm is pointed out by the number 24, the can- 
non or shin by the number 23, the hoofs or claws by num- 
ber 25, the coronet being the soft elevation at the upper 
part of the hoof. 

The fore-flank is located just behind the elbow, shown 
by number 30, the fore-ribs (26); in beef cattle 29 and 
30 constitute the plates: 27 constitutes the location of the 
back-ribs, the upper portion sometimes being termed the 
couiMng, the flank is shown by 28. The chine (14) in- 
cludes that part of the back from the loins (16) to the 
shoulders. The hips or hooks (17) are the front boun- 
daries of the rumps (cattle), croup (horses), indicated by 
18; 19 shows the hip joint or thurl. In the retail beef 
trade the porterhouse and sirloin cuts are taken from 
the loin cut; tenderloin steak is taken from the inside 
and just beneath the ribs on either side of the spinal 
column, is furnished by the psose muscles, if this is done 
the porterhouse cut is spoiled; the rib roast is got from 
the spot 26, the fore-ribs. The rib and loin cuts are di- 
vided between the twelfth and thirteenth ribs, and the 
loin separated from the round at the point of the hip. The 
division between shoulder (chuck) and rib cuts is made 
between the fifth and sixth ribs. 

The flank (28) in the horse, strictly speaking, extends 
from the loins to the belly. The lower thigh, gaskin, or 
gammon in pigs is the lower part of the region showing 
number 21; the dock is the solid part of the tail. 

The height of a horse is the vertical distance from the 
highest point of the withers to the ground, the girth is 
taken around the body, just behind the shoulders, the 
depth of the chest being measured at the same spot. 



CHAPTEK X. 
HOLDING A POST-MORTEM. 

The stockman or his veterinarian will sometimes have 
animals die upon their hands, and as it is not always de- 
sirable to incur extra expense, the stockman will be the 
one to examine the dead animal, or hold a post-mortem, 
as it is termed. 

To be of any value a post-mortem should be held within 
a few hours after death, as destructive changes soon take 
place in dead animals; if properly conducted and care- 
ful note made of the conditions found, a post-mortem 
may be of considerable value to science and a source of 
satisfaction to the owner. 

The necessary instruments are a good butcher knife 
and a saw; along with these there should be a few quarts 
of good antiseptic in solution, so that the person holding 
the post-mortem can cleanse his hands and arms fre- 
quently, the latter precaution should on no account be 
neglected, especially in cases where the cause of death 
is unknown. The animal may be examined in one of 
two positions, (1) when lying on the back, or (2) on the side, 
if the former it will need to be propped up, the front 
legs being allowed to drop to each side by cutting the 
muscles in the armpits. An incision is then made with 
the knife, right along the middle line of the belly, care 
being taken to avoid cutting any of the bowels; that 
done the knife is made to cut from the flank nearly to 



122 Veterinary Elements. 

the back bone and the flaps laid back, the bowels will 
then be in view. The saw can then be used to saw be- 
tween the hind legs, thus letting them fall to the ground 
besides opening np the pelvis, the saw can also be used 
on the ribs, cutting them midway between the breast 
bone and back; by lifting the sawed piece out the lung 
cavity is exposed and its contents in view. Always cut 
through the skin and muscles before using the saw on a 
part. 

If the animal is on its side, preferably its right side, 
the abdomen should be opened and the ribs sawed close 
to the back and breast bones, the sections removed, thus 
exposing the entire lung and bowel cavities; when re- 
moving the part over the upper lung it should be noticed 
whether the inner surface of the part removed had ad- 
hered to (grown to) the lung. 

If the disease affecting the animal was known, only 
those parts affected need be examined; it is, however, 
better to examine the entire body. 

Draw out the big gut (great colon) and unfold it, then 
the small intestines as far as possible, thus exposing the 
mesentery, its blood vessels and nodes, which should be 
examined; then the remaining intestines are drawn out 
over the back. After a careful examination of all the 
parts they are cut through at their attachments and 
removed. 

In cattle and sheep the stomachs should be removed 
and examined first, the third stomach and contents in 
cattle and the fourth in sheep being scrutinized thor- 
oughly. When the stomach of a horse is opened the 
quantity of bots present should be mentioned in the notes 



Holding a Post- Mortem. 123 

k§pt; the digestive tube should be examined for ruptures, 
enlargements of the blood vessels, redness or blackness 
(signs of inflammation), stoppages, and worms, the lat- 
ter may be in the bowel walls (e. g., sheep). 

The spleen, which is attached to the stomach, should 
be examined; it should be somewhat elastic, retaining 
the imprint of a finger, and be of a violet blue color, ap - 
proaching to red; it usually weighs about two pounds. 

The pancreas may be overlooked unless one is careful ; 
it is somewhat triangular in shape, weighing about one 
pound; is of a reddish cream color. 

The kidneys weigh 27 and 25 ounces, the right being 
the heavier, are reddish brown in color, those of cattle 
are lobulated. The liver in horses weighs about 11 
pounds, and is of a solid brown color, and is very friable, 
being easily crushed by the fingers. If the venous cir- 
culation has been impeded in the heart and lungs, the 
center of each lobule will be red, the margins yellow or 
green in color, this is the usual appearance after death. 
If there has been active liver congestion the liver will 
appear mottled; if, however, there has been active in- 
flammation of the liver it will be red in color. No gall 
bladder will be found in the horse. The head and neck 
should be examined, looking at the thyroid glands, the 
teeth and nostrils. 

The sexual and urinary organs should be looked over 
for stone in the bladder, etc., pus in the kidneys or uterus 
(womb). 

The lungs and heart should now be carefully examined, 
note the condition of the pericardium (the outside cov- 
ering of the heart), and then the heart itself, pointed 



124 Veterinary Elements. 

objects are sometimes found in the hearts of cattle. The 
lungs are next in order, their coverings being very care- 
fully looked over for adhesions; several cuts lengthwise 
should be made in the lungs to detect medicines, matter 
(pus) or hardened spots (consolidation). The lymph 
nodes found in the mesentery, between the lungs at the 
splitting of the windpipe, those at the back and side of 
the pharynx, in the armpits and groin, the submaxillary 
and other salivary glands, should all be examined, the 
lymph nodes being cut into, if enlarged, and a cheesy, 
gritty material found, tuberculosis should be suspected. 
The stockman rarely has time to examine the limbs and 
brain, the former, however, in cases of disputed lame- 
ness should be examined, especially the hocks, lateral 
cartilages, splint bones, .coffin and fetlock joints, for 
spavin, side bones, splints and ringbones, respectively, 
note should be made of all the lesions found. 



CHAPTER XI. 
SIMPLE FARM MEDICINES. 

The up-to-date stockman will have his chest of medi- 
cines for his stock, not with the idea of treating anything 
or everything, but for the purpose of meeting unexpected 
conditions and for the treatment of simple diseases. 
Before any person can use or prescribe medicines intelli- 
gently it is essential that they understand the actions 
and doses of those medicines; not only is it essential that 
the stockman know something about medicines, and that 
something well, he must also know the best methods of 
giving such medicines. The kernel of the matter is that 
the stockman must be an animal nurse to render efficient 
service when his stock are sick. Medicines are often 
classified according to their actions, each class being 
given a distinctive name. The utility of such a classifi- 
cation is at once seen, e. g. , an animal is sick, the owner 
instead of being told to use a specific drug such as iron, 
is advised to use a tonic, running over the list of drugs 
in his farm medicine chest he remembers that he has a 
drug there with a tonic action, and uses it, whereas had 
he not understood the term — tonic — the animal would 
have had to go untreated. 

Seven classes of drugs will be considered and examples 
of each given, the first five are generally given internally, 
the last two being intended for external use onlv. 



126 Veterinary Elements. 

1. Stimulants. Under this class are found medicines 
which have the power to excite or increase the vital 
activity of an organ, they stimulate in fact. Their action 
is prompt but only temporary or transient, their effects 
soon pass off. 

Alcohol in the shape of whiskey, brandy, rum, etc. ; 
ammonia; sweet spirits of nitre; turpentine; coffee, are 
all examples of this class, their use would be justified 
after some exhausting work, such as a hard drive, in 
fact in such cases their use will often head off an attack 
of lung trouble. 

2. Tonics. The tonic family is a large one, and one 
that is the most useful of all to the stockman, because in 
this class are included the great natural medicines; — 
good food, pure air and water, proper grooming and 
exercise. Although other tonics are mentioned, it must 
not be forgotten that their use will only be profitable 
when combined with the above mentioned tonics. Use- 
ful drugs of this kind are — iron in one of its forms; gen- 
tian root; quinine; Milestone (copper sulphate); mix 
vomica;" aloes, etc. Tonics are somewhat slow in their 
action but are permanent in their results, they improve 
the appetite and blood circulation and therefore tone up 
the entire system. The following or Douglas mixture 
is a splendid tonic for fowls, sulfuric acid \ ounce, cop- 
peras 6 ounces, rain water 4 ounces; give a tablespoonful 
to 6 quarts of the drinking-water; for colds it is very 
good. 

3. Purgatives. This class of drugs are especially use- 
ful to the stockman because by their aid he is often ena- 
bled to rectify mistakes in feeding or treatment. Pur- 



Simple Farm Medicines. 127 

gatives act upon the bowels and auxiliary organs, and in 
that action purge the entire system of injurious material. 
They cause increased action of the bowels by stimulating 
the bowel movement (peristalsis), cause an outpouring 
of fluid from the bowel walls, or they may hinder the 
absorption of fluids, as a consequence the feces (dung) 
is more watery than usual, or if a stoppage has occurred, 
it is overcome. The milder purgatives are often termed 
laxatives, of which the following are commonly used: 
bran mashes, green food, sulphur, molasses, small doses 
of raw linseed oil, epsom or glauber salts. The purga- 
tives in general use for farm stock are aloes; salts (sulfate 
of magnesia) and raw linseed oil. 

4. Anodynes comprise the pain relieving class, relax 
spasm, and quiet nervous excitement; such are warmth 
in the form of poultices and fomentations, cold applied 
by means of ice or very cold water, sweet spirits of nitre, 
laudanum, aconite. This class of drugs requires more 
care in the use of its members than probably any of the 
others previously mentioned. 

5. Anthelmintics are a very useful class, as by their 
use the stockman is enabled to rid his flocks and herds 
of internal parasites, generally termed worms. Anthel- 
mintics may be said to kill and expel worms, examples 
are iron sulfate (copperas), copper sulfate (bluestone), 
common salt, pumpkin seeds, gasoline, benzine, kerosene 
(coal oil), creolin, santonine, turpentine and aloes. 

6. Vesicants. The members of this family of drugs 
are suited for external use only, as they are very irri- 
tant and will raise blisters, hence their name, from the 
Latin, vesica, a blister; Spanish fly (cantharides), binio- 



128 Veterinary Elements. 

dide of mercury, ammonia water, turpentine, hot water, 
strong acids or alkalies, belong to this class, in some 
cases they even destroy tissues. 

7. Antiseptics. This class of drugs has revolutionized 
both human and veterinary surgery and there is proba- 
bly no one class of medicines that will pay the stockman 
as handsome a profit in their use as will the antiseptics. 
Contagious diseases and wounds become less formidable 
to handle if antiseptics are used plentifully, consequently 
the stockman should never let his supply of these useful 
drugs be exhausted. Fortunately the class is a large 
one and a selection can be made quite easily. It must 
be remembered that many of them are poisonous, hence 
must not be left where children or animals can get at 
them; there are however some of them that may be used 
internally, such, however, should be used under the 
veterinarian's directions. Boracic acid, creolin, carbolic 
acid, corrosive sublimate (bichloride of mercury), per- 
manganate of potash, tar, Milestone are antiseptics in 
common use, and the list is constantly being added to; 
besides these the various proprietary articles to be found 
on the market, such as chloro-naphtholeum, germol, 
zenoleum, possess antiseptic properties to a greater or 
less degree. Antiseptics act by destroying germs, there- 
by preventing or arresting putrefaction. Some members 
of this family may be used for killing such parasites as 
lice, ticks, maggots found on the bodies of farm animals. 

The actions of other drugs have also served to group 
them, e. g., medicines acting on the kidneys, thereby 
increasing the urine are termed Diuretics; those that 
lower the temperature of the body, as in fevers, etc., 



Simple Farm Medicines. 



129 



are termed Febrifuges; those overcoming acidity are 
termed antacids; aphrodisiacs, medicines increasing sex- 
ual desires; emmenagogues, medicines said to bring on 
oestrum or heat (?) are also illustrations of the method 
of classification used. 

THE FARM STOCK MEDICINE CHEST. 

The chest may be made of wood, fitted up according 
to the articles it will contain. A good box, 3 feet long, 
2 feet wide and 2 feet deep, with a lid well hinged on 
and possessing a good lock, will suffice. This box can 
be fitted up with shelves and a couple of drawers, for 
convenience it may be fastened on a wall and thus take 
shape as a cupboard. The following dose table and rules 
should be typewritten or printed and pasted up on the 
inside of the chest door. 



You can 
give a 



Full dose 
at 



Half dose 
at 



Quarter 
dose at 



One-eighth 
dose at 



One-sixteenth 



Horse. 



3 years 
and up 



Ut<>3 
years 



9 to 18 
months 



5 to 9 
months 



at birth up 



Cow. 



2 years 
and up 



1 to 2 
years 



6 to 12 
months 



3 to 6 
months 



at birth up 



Sheep. 



1| years 
and up 



9 to 18 
months 



5 to 9 
months 



3 to 5 
months 



at birth up 



Pig. 



15 mos. 
and up 



8 to 15 
months 



6 to 8 
months 



3 to 6 
months 



at birth up 



B.— a. 

b. 



Keep all bottles tightly corked. 

All bottles must be labeled, especially those con- 
taining poisons. 

Always read the label on the bottle before using 
any of its contents. 

Be sparing with drugs. 

Do not feed condition powders, instead use the 
natural tonics, good food, air, water, exercise, all 
to be given regularly. 



130 Veterinary Elements. 

The Chest should contain the following drugs and 
instruments: Creolin or some good substitute, lib.; sul- 
fate of magnesia, in a tin, 5 lbs. ; raw linseed oil, \ gal- 
lon; powdered ginger, 1 lb.; ammonia water, 8 ounces; 
sweet spirits of nitre, 8 ounces; powdered sulfate of iron, 
1 ounces; laudanum, 8 ounces; turpentine, 1 lb. ; pine 
tar, 2 lb. can; 2 ounces of blister, biniodide of mercury; 
1 physic ball (8 dram aloes). One or two good metal 
milk tubes, a 2-ounce measuring graduate, glass; one 
cattle trocar and canula, a 1-quart pewter syringe, one 
1 -ounce hard rubber syringe and a glass funnel. The 
entire lot can be secured at a moderate cost. It is not 
advisable to keep large quantities of drugs on hand, as 
they spoil rapidly. Powdered drugs may be conveni- 
ently kept in glass fruit jars. The household kitchen 
will be apt to afford sweet lard, mustard and baking 
soda if occasion should arise for their use. If a glass 
graduate is not available, the following table of equiva- 
lents will take the place: 

1 wineglassful is equal to one and one-half (1J) fluid 
ounces. 

1 tablespoonful is equal to one-half ounce. 

1 dessertspoonful is equal to two fluid drams. 

1 teaspoonful is equal to one fluid dram. 

ACTIONS AND DOSES OF MEDICINES. 

Acetic acid, a weak form of which is vinegar, is useful 
to apply to warts, and as an antidote to alkalies. 

Aloes is the purgative in general use for the horse. 
The best variety is that known as Barbadoes aloes, liver 
brown in color, and when broken shows a shiny fracture. 



Simple Farm Medicines. 131 

In small doses aloes is a tonic, in the fluid form it used 
to Ibe applied to wounds, for a temporary dressing in cold 
climates, equal parts of tincture of aloes and tincture of 
myrrh is very useful. Aloes take 18 to 24 hours to act, 
or longer depending on the size of the dose, the feed of 
the animal, the breed of the animal and whether worked 
or not. It is a dangerous drug to repeat a dose of inside 
of forty-eight to sixty hours; whenever possible the horse 
should be prepared for the physic. It must never be 
used for mares when in foal, or for horses suffering from 
distemper or lung troubles. 

The dose is four to ten drams either in a ball or solu- 
tion. This drug can best be obtained in the ball form 
from one' s veterinarian. When preparing horses to go 
into winter quarters, or just previous to fitting for spring- 
work, aloes have a beneficial effect. 

Bluestone (copper sulfate) is a good astringent and is 
often used in cases of foot-rot in sheep and cattle; in thrush 
in horses, or to apply to proud-flesh (excessive granula- 
tions). Internally it is used as a tonic or anthelmintic 
in doses of thirty to sixty grains for mature horses and 
cattle; when used externally the strength varies from full 
strength down to a solution containing five grains to the 
ounce of water. 

Creolin is a product obtained from coal tar, and is a 
good antiseptic. It mixes well with water, making a 
milky white solution, is used externally with from ten to 
fifteen parts of water. 

Copperas (sulfate of iron) is a tonic in small repeated 
doses, in large doses it constipates and lessens the appe- 
tite; is largely used in bloodless (anemic) conditions, 



132 Veterinary Elements. 

and is frequently used as a worm medicine; next to lin- 
seed meal it is the largest constituent of condition pow- 
ders. The dose is from one-half to one dram in the food 
given twice daily. It should be kept in a well -stoppered 
bottle, as the air tends to spoil it. It is a useful antisep- 
tic for disinfecting stables, used at the rate of one pound 
to a gallon of water. 

Epsom Salts (sulfate of magnesia) is the commcn pur- 
gative for cattle and sheep. Given just before calving 
to heavy milkers it is a useful preventive of milk fever 
(parturient paresis) ; it should be combined with common 
salt and ginger, one -fourth of each to one of the epsom 
salts. 

The dose for cows is one to two pounds; sheep, four to 
six ounces. It should be dissolved in one or two quarts 
of warm water and given as a drench. Salts are also use- 
ful as a laxative for feverish conditions in horses, being 
used in one to three ounce doses for this purpose. 

Ammonia water (liquor ammonia) is used in liniments 
and liquid blisters. It is a useful drug in bloating of 
sheep and cattle, in such cases always being well diluted 
with milk, raw linseed oil or cold gruel. 

The dose is one to six drams. 

Lime water is a useful drug, especially in the indiges- 
tion of youug animals, due to overrichness of the dam's 
milk. In colts showing a need of bone forming material 
it is a useful adjunct to the feed. It is quite easily pre- 
pared, by taking a piece of lime (fresh) and putting it 
into a gallon of water, let stand for a few days, keeping 
the bottle well corked. The clear solution is used in 
doses of one to four ounces two or three times daily. 



Simple Farm Medicines. 133 

Equal parts of lime water and raw linseed oil make a 
simple soothing application for burns in all animals. 

Linseed oil (raw) is a very valuable laxative for preg- 
nant mares. It is mild in action if given in moderate 
doses and can be repeated without danger. An occa- 
sional dose of this drug will ward off attacks of azoturia 
and stocking of the limbs. 

The dose for horses is one-half to one and one-half pints; 
cattle, one to two pints; sheep and pigs, six to twelve 
ounces. 

Linseed (flax seed) tea is a valuable nutrient in sick- 
ness and is used with separator skim milk for calves. 

Linseed meal, the residue after the extraction of the 
oil, forms the bulk of condition powders, which is there- 
fore the costliest way of buying this food. 

Laudanum (tincture of opium) is obtained from the 
poppy seed gum and is largely used as an anodyne. It 
is constipating in its effects, so is useful in scouring calves 
or lambs. It is also used by shepherds at lambing time 
for ewes with after pains; in colic cases it is combined 
with sweet spirits of nitre and water. In moderation is 
a stimulant to the brain and spinal cord. 

Horses and cattle take from one to three ounces; sheep 
and pigs, two to six drams. If combined with warm oil 
it is useful for inflamed udders and sprains. 

Sweet spirits of nitre is a stimulant and diuretic, and 
also lowers the temperature in fevered conditions. Is 
much used in colics, colds, or whenever a stimulant is 
needed. 

One to three ounces for horses, one to four ounces for 
cattle; sheep and pigs take two to four drams, diluted in 
four to six times the amount of cold water. 



134 Veterinary Elements. 

Turpentine is one of the most useful medicines in the 
whole list. It is used as a diuretic and stimulant and to 
ward off swelled conditions (purpura hemorrhagica) fol- 
lowing influenza. 

For colic or bloating in cattle it is unsurpassed, and is 
also a reliable anthelmintic; applied locally it is a severe 
irritant and should never be applied full strength to 
wounds; mixed with raw linseed oil four to six parts, it 
is a useful application for rheumatism in cattle and pigs. 

One or two ounces are given internally to horses; cattle 
take one to four ounces; sheep, two to four drams; it 
must be given well diluted with water, oil or milk. 

Sulphur burned on charcoal in a tightly closed-up 
building is a valuable disinfectant. When mixed with 
oil or cream, in the proportion of one to four, it is a good 
dressing for the skin of hairy-legged horses; some grooms 
mix it with kerosene (coal oil) in preference to raw lin- 
seed oil, such is to be recommended if there is any gummi- 
ness in the limbs. It is very seldom used internally, 
although a mild and safe laxative for pregnant animals; it 
may be given to cows and mares in doses of one to three 
ounces, sheep take a half ounce at a dose. 

Tar is antiseptic in its properties and is especially use- 
ful in foot troubles, especially those of cattle and sheep. 
It has been recommended as a preventive of grub in the 
head of sheep, the drug being smeared on the nose. 
When given internally horses and cattle take half to 
two ounces smeared on the tongue. 

Kerosene is used as an anthelmintic in horses, in 
doses of two to eight ounces, given in twice the quantity 
of milk ; if mixed with water in the proportion of one to 
ten, it is a serviceable remedy for itchy tail in horses. 



Simple Farm Medicines. 135 

Ginger is a useful stomach stimulant, and prevents 
griping, for which reason it is added to purgatives. 

Dose for horses is one-half to one ounce; for cows one 
to four ounces; sheep one to four drams. 

Carbolic Acid is used externally, one to fifty parts of 
water; it is the common antiseptic. 

Quinine and Whiskey are largely used as bracers for sheep 
when at shows, and are very useful if these charges of 
the. shepherd are a bit off feed. 

Corrosive Sublimate (perchloride of mercury) is a 
deadily poison, albeit, a reliable antiseptic, added to 
water, one to one or two thousand parts of water. It is 
best procured in the form of tablets, the same as used 
for preserving milk samples for the composite test. 
Another form of mercury is the red iodide, used for 
blisters, for which purpose it is mixed with from six to 
eight j>arts of sweet lard or vaseline. 

Poultices are much used in diseases of the feet or for 
painful wounds. The material used may be bran, tur- 
nips, linseed meal or spent hops, the nurse will have to 
adapt whatever may be at his disposal in order to apply 
them, old gunny sacks or salt bags are sometimes used. 
It is essential that all poultices be kept moist, and in the 
majority of cases hot. In warm weather they must not 
be allowed to sour or remain on too long or the wound 
will be made worse rather than better, due to the in- 
creased germ population. In such cases an ounce of 
creolin added to the poultice will be useful. A clean 
sweet poultice is made with folds of cheese cloth soaked 
in a hot carbolic acid or corrosive sublimate solution. 

Poisons and Their Antidotes. Drugs administered 
in too large or too frequent doses become poisons, a few 



130 Veterinary Elements. 

of the common ones are given with the symptoms caused 
and the antidote. 

Aconite, that old friend of the stockman is a very com- 
mon cause of death among live stock, due to over doses. 

Symptoms. Attempts at vomiting, retching and gurg- 
ling sounds in the throat, difficult breathing, depression 
well marked, froths at the mouth, sweating. 

Antidote. Give stimulants, whiskey, coffee or brandy, 
keep warm, blanket and hand rub. 

Arsenic is sometimes used to improve the condition of 
horses, a dangerous method in the hands of novices. The 
symptoms are colicky pains, depression, pulse small, 
rapid and irregular, breathing hurried, and sometimes 
diarrhoea; if slow poisoning is taking place, the eyelids 
are puffy, eyes watery and irritable; shortness of breath 
when worked, and depression. 

Antidote. Stop giving the drug, and give fresh 
sesqui-oxide of iron or magnesia half-pound doses in 
warm water; give stimulants. 

Ammonia Water in large undiluted doses causes great 
pain, slavering and casting off of the mucous lining of the 
mouth, difficulty in breathing, cough, choking effects, 
the poison may be smelled from the breath. 

Give vinegar, one-half pint in a quart of water or 
lemon juice, unless the animal cannot swallow; then let 
it inhale (breathe in) acetic acid or strong vinegar fumes. 

Corrosive Sublimate causes great pain, purging with 
bloody mucus feces and difficult breathing, the skin cold 
and moist. Give as antidotes plenty of whites of egg, 
milk or flour gruel and stimulants. 

Carbolic Acid causes the mouth lining to be white and 
hard, urine dark, shallow, difficult breathing, weakness, 



Simple Farm Medicines. 137 

seems stupid, pulse weak and irregular, pupils contracted. 
Use as antidotes epsom or glauber salts in large quan- 
tities, whites of eggs, oil and stimulants. 

Strychnine in poisonous doses causes continued spasms, 
the animal being all twisted up, breathing is stopped as 
a result. Give large doses of spirits or two to three 
ounces of chloral hydrate in water, or let them inhale 
chloroform. 

Water Hemlock or wild parsnip causes brain symptoms — 
in cattle, spasms, convulsions, wild appearance, seems as 
if mad. Give a large dose of epsom salts. 



CHAPTER XII. 
MODE OF GIVING MEDICINE. 

Animals are all more or less difficult to give medicine to, 
therefore the stockman must be careful to give it in such 
a way as to annoy the patient as little as possible and yet 
avoid wasting the medicine. Different methods have to be 
followed with the various farm animals, the stronger 
animals such as horses and cows require a certain amount 
of restraint in order to give the drugs successfully. 

To get the effect of medicines they must be introduced 
into the body. 

Medicines are taken into the system by three channels: 

1. Through the digestive tract, in such cases being 
given by the mouth, in the form of powders, drenches 
or balls, and per rectum, by injection into the bowel. 

2. Through the organs of respiration, causing the ani- 
mal to breathe the drug, this is known as the inhalation 
method, and is useful in such diseases as strangles (colt 
distemper) or worms in the air passages (sheep and 
calves). 

3. Through the skin, the medicines being absorbed. 
There are subdivisions of this, the absorptive method, 
the first one of which is employed by stockmen, the others 
being used by the veterinarian whenever necessary; they 
are: (a) epidermically, rubbing into the skin (epider- 
mis), the general way of using blisters; (6) endermically, 
the drug being applied under the skin, the rowel and 



Mode of Giving Medicine. 139 

seton are used in this method; (c) hypodermically, the 
placing of the drug or serum under the skin or into the 
tissues by the aid of the hypodermic syringe at the 
present time the professional man uses this method in 
the giving of cocaine, morphine, etc. , the testing of ani- 
mals with tuberculin and mallein and when performing 
preventive inoculation for blackleg, and in the use of 
serums. 

GIVING MEDICINES TO HORSES. 

1. Powders, if not objectionable to the animal, may be 
given in the feed, when distasteful may be mixed with 
molasses and placed on the back of the tongue with a 
spoon or wooden paddle. The latter way is a nice method 
of giving drugs to horses suffering with sore throat, etc. 

2. Drenching is the old way of giving fluids, and is a 
useful way when large quantities are to be given. Back 
the horse in a single stall and raise the head by means of 
a stable fork placed through the nose band of the head- 
stall (halter), or better take a hame strap, buckle it, 
thus making a loop, slip into the mouth just back of the 
front upper teeth, then raise by means of a rope or fork 
until the teeth are a little above the horizontal. The 
medicine which is in a tin, hard rubber, or even a strong 
glass bottle or funnel, is poured in from the off side, the 
person drenching steadies the head with his left hand on 
the headstall, which should be slack enough to let the 
mouth open, and slowly pours in about a half cupful at 
a time. If any attempts at coughing are made, at once 
let the head down. Never seize the tongue or pinch the 
nostrils when drenching. If the animal does not swallow 



140 Veterinary Elements. 

readily tickle the roof of the mouth with one or two fin- 
gers. In some cases a person giving the drench may get 
on the horse's back, sitting well forward, draw the head 
round to the off side by the halter with the left hand 
and drench with the bottle in the right hand. The ap- 
plication of the rope or the noose twitch will often be 
sufficient. 

A method sometimes used in drenching sick horses is 
to give the medicine when the patient is lying down. 
The operator must be agile, strong and watchful. A 
halter is placed on the animal, and as soon as he lies 
down the halter is grasped tightly on its underside so as 
to throw the nose of the horse in the air, the poll being 
held tight to the ground, the operator will be at the back 
of the horse and will place his knee on the patient's neck, 
and then pour the drench in slowly and at short inter- 
vals. If necessary the animal may be thrown and the 
head tied to a surcingle. Whenever it is desired to re- 
strain a horse and keep him down by holding his head, 
the poll should be held to the ground, the nose up, the 
back of the head being drawn well back. 

Fluids in smaller quantities may be given with a hard 
rubber dose syringe, a very clean nice method. The 
operator stands in front of the animal, with his left hand 
in the off inter- dental space opens the mouth and draws 
the tongue gently forward with his right hand, inserts 
the syringe at the near inter-dental space and discharges 
its contents on the back part of the tongue, the tongue 
being released as soon as the syringe contents are dis- 
charged. 

If the stockman is expert at giving balls, fluids can be 
given in gelatin capsules. 



Mode of Giving Medicine. 141 

In cattle the syringe can also be used, when large 
quantities are given, usually the case in ruminants, the 
bottle or horn is needed. If a horned animal, the assist- 
ant stands on the near side, seizes both horns and ele- 
vates the head, the drencher standing on the off side 
pours in the fluid in small quantities at frequent inter- 
vals; if dehorned, the use of a halter is an advantage, 
the assistant may also insert his fingers in the nose, or 
use the bulldogs (a form of pincers) and thus elevate the 
head. Another method which may be employed with a 
docile animal is for the drencher to stand on the off side, 
pass his left arm over the neck and with the left hand 
open the mouth and elevate it slightly, the bottle or horn 
is then inserted into the right side of the mouth, at a 
distance far enough to avoid trickling out at the corners 
and not too far so as to cause choking; the left arm of 
the operator brings pressure on the neck muscles and 
aids in lifting the head, which should be held a little 
above the horizontal. If the head is raised too high the 
medicine goes the wrong way. Sheep may be drenched 
by backing into a corner, getting astride of the animal, 
elevate the head slightly with the left hand, with the 
right hand pour in the fluid. For lambs and sheep dif- 
ficult to drench, the operator should sit the animal up on 
its rump, with its head between his knees, the medicine 
can be poured in with little risk of choking. 

Precautions. N. B. — Cattle and sheep are easily 
choked when drenching, therefore it must be remem- 
bered that to avoid loss, only small quantities should be 
given to be swallowed at one time, and if coughing 
occurs due to some of the medicine going the wrong way 



142 Veterinarg Elements. 

the head must at once be lowered, so that any fluid in 
the mouth may run out. I have known of many animals 
killed by neglect of these precautions. A special method 
of drenching cows down with milk fever is described 
under that disease. Avoid raising the head in any ani- 
mal much above the horizontal. Do not pull the tongue 
forward, as such an action pulls the lid (epiglottis) of 
larynx up and thus opens the way to the lungs. 

Pigs may be drenched by putting a noose over the 
upper part of the snout when the animal will hang back 
on its haunches and squeal, the medicine can be spooned 
in slowly. Pigs will take oil, salts and other medicines 
if given mixed with sweet milk in the trough. 

Balling. Considerable dexterity is required to properly 
ball a horse, to do so the operator stands in front of his 
patient and with his left hand gently draws the tongue 
forward 2 to 3 inches, the right hand carrying the ball 
resting on the 2nd and 4th fingers, the 3rd finger on top 
of it, is carried back in a straight line to the root of the 
tongue, where the ball is left, the tongue at once released 
and the hand withdrawn. A few sips of water may be 
given and if properly done the ball will be seen to travel 
down the near side of the neck. 

Inhalation Method. A pail of hot medicated (with 
creolin or turpentine) water is placed under the animal's 
head, a blanket or bag thrown over the head and neck 
and the patient forced to breathe the steam; sufficient 
air must also be allowed to come in or strangulation would 
result. In some cases, such as in large flocks of sheep 
or calves, they may be confined in a tight building for a 
few minutes and sulfur burned there, the stockman should 
stay in with the patients. 



Mode of Giving Medicine. 143 

Blistering. Through the skin, only the first method will 
be employed by the stockman, namely, the use of blisters 
and liniments. To apply a blister clip off or shave the 
hair over the part to be treated, then wash with warm 
water and soap, and dry. The nurse will then rub in the 
blister as long as it is absorbed, or according to the di- 
rections given by the veterinarian; the rubbing should 
take fifteen minutes after applying the blister, the hair 
below should be anointed with sweet lard or vaseline, to 
prevent blistering below the spot intended. Tie up the 
head for twenty-four to thirty-six hours, the first eight 
hours of the time he should be backed in the stall and 
tied crosswise, so as to avoid banging of his knees and 
to prevent him tearing the parts. At the end of thirty- 
six to forty- eight hours the blistered part should be 
shampooed with hot water and soft soap (not home made) ; 
dried thoroughly; clean, sweet lard then being applied 
every day, the parts being washed once every four days. 
At the end of ten days walking exercise may be given 
and a cooling lotion applied once daily. If four legs 
have to be blistered not more than two may be done at 
one time, an interval of a week being allowed before the 
other legs are blistered. A nerved limb or a horse in a 
weak condition should never be blistered. When rub- 
bing in a blister or liniments, rub as far as is possible in 
the direction of the hairs. 

The other methods, by means of setons and the use of 
the hypodermic syringe, belong to the province of the 
veterinarian. 



PART II. 
Diseases, their Prevention and Treatment. 

CHAPTER XIII. 
NURSING OF SICK ANIMALS. 

The bulk of the work relating to the treatment of sick 
animals falls on the stockman, and accordingly as he at- 
tends to them, either good or bad, so will the results be 
good or bad. Nursing in some cases counts for as much 
as the treatment of the veterinarian; in any event, to get 
profitable results from the employment of the veterinary 
surgeon his instructions should be faithfully carried out 
and all possible assistance given. The average farm has 
not elaborate barns and stables, with electric light, hot 
and cold water, etc. ; while these furnishings are helpful 
they are not essential to successful nursing. The stock- 
man who is at all of a mechanical bent can fix up a suit- 
able sick stall easily; there are certain essentials to be 
observed — plenty of pure air, meaning good ventilation, 
not drafts; lots of light, there are some cases needing a 
darkened stall; warmth, in the North not always easy to 
obtain, and plenty of room. 

The sick stall is by preference a box stall, situated on 

the south side of a building, thus rendering it well lighted 

and cheerful; it should be twelve feet square and nine or 

ten feet high. The box should be clean and well bedded, 

10 




iF JF 

king's system of ventilation. 



Nursing of Sick Animals. 147 

the walls as smooth as possible, so as to be easily disin- 
fected; except in contagious diseases, the box should be 
so placed that the patient can see others of its own kind. 
The ventilation can be made right if a little attention be 
given to the matter. "We have seen when discussing the 
physiology of the lungs how essential pure air is, and 
how that lack of pure air means lack of means of warmth 
to the animal. Prof. King (in the Fifteenth Eeport of 
the Wisconsin Experiment Station) describes a scientific 
method of ventilating a stable; this method is in use in 
the dairy barn and the horse barn and veterinary infirm- 
ary of the Experiment Station. 

A single ventilating flue D E rises above the roof of 
the main barn and is divided below the roof into two 
arms A B D, which terminate near the level of the stable 
floor at A A. These openings are provided with ordi- 
nary registers with valves to be opened and closed when 
desired. Two other ventilators are placed at B B, to be 
used when the stable is too warm, but are provided with 
valves to be closed at other times. C is a direct 12- inch 
ventilator leading into the main shaft and opening from 
the ceiling, so as to admit a current of warm air to force 
the draft. The air enters the stable at various points F 
and Gr, and in the vertical section by arrows at F and GL 
Parke's system is very similar, as is shown in the venti- 
lation of an ordinary room, by raising the lower sash of 
the window a few inches and closing up that open space 
below it by a piece of board, thus the current of air is 
not direct as it comes up between the two sashes. The 
stockman may sometimes have cases requiring a dark- 
ened stall, such as in lockjaw (Tetanus), the sick stall 



148 Veterinary Elements. 

should then be kept closed to visitors; in the majority of 
cases plenty of light is beneficial, one reason being that 
light is harmful to germs. 

The floor may be of earth, well packed, plank or con- 
crete, the latter of course is the easiest to cleanse thor- 
oughly; in any case all stalls should be well bedded; in 
this connection it must be remembered that bedding 
soiled with the feces (dung) or saturated with the urine 
should not be allowed to accumulate in the stall. The 
large quantities of free ammonia in the stalls of geldings 
cannot but fail to have an injurious effect on their eyes, 
besides being wasteful of a valuable manure constituent. 
Gypsum sprinkled in the stall and stable will help over- 
come the difficulty after the soiled bedding is removed 
and before fresh, clean material is brought in. If the 
patient is very weak or lame cut straw will be preferable 
to the long article. In cases in which artificial warmth 
cannot be got, clothing must be used, such must be light, 
warm and fastened on securely; heavy clothing often 
does more harm than good. In this connection may be 
mentioned the absurd practice (especially in cold coun- 
tries) of applying blankets wet with boiling water, un- 
wrung, or bags of hot, wet bran; if heat has to be 
applied, have the blankets wrung out well and over them 
apply a waterproof sheet; hot, dry bran may also be used. 
Care must always be taken that the patient does not be- 
come chilled after the application of warmth. 

The attention given the patient will include feeding, 
watering, giving medicine, taking pulse rate, tempera- 
tures and respirations, together with the use of enemas 
or the application of poultices, etc. 



Nursing of Sick Animals. 



149 



The pulse rate in the horse is taken at the lower jaw 
with the first two fingers of the hand gently pressing the 
artery against the bone, the person taking the pulse usu- 
ally stands on the near side and takes it with the right 
hand. It may also be taken just below the 
eye, on the inside of the fore leg, under the 
tail and on the outside of a hind fetlock. In 
cattle it is taken at the side of the jaw oppo- 
site to the attendant or just above the fore 
fetlocks; in sheep it is taken on the inside of 
the thigh ; in this animal, however, it is rarely 
of much value. The pulse beats will be found 
to number from 36 to 40 per minute in the 
horse, 42 to 46 in the cow. The clinical 
thermometer is of great value to the veterina- 
rian and the nurse; no stockman should be 
without one, its use will often aid in determin- 
ing whether an animal is sick or not, and if 
the owner of the animal consults with his 
veterinarian, that person if possessed of the 
correct temperature, pulse, rate of breathing, 
appearance of the feces and urine, together 
with the state of the mucous membrane, viz., 
of the eye and nose, will be able to judge as 
to the condition of the animal and prescribe 
accordingly. The temperature of animals is 
usually taken in the rectum, where the ther- 
mometer is allowed to remain from one to three 
minutes. Always shake the mercury down in the 
thermometer before using it, to do so place the instru- 
ment bulb down between the finger and thumb, then 



Clinical 
Thermometer 



150 Veterinary Elements. 

with a wrist movement shake the thermometer in a 
downward direction. The healthy horse will have a tem- 
perature of 100° Fahr., the cow 100° to 101°, sheep 104°, 
young animals registering slightly higher. A daily vari- 
ation of one degree (°) is quite common and natural, 
more than that is indicative of disease. The bulb of the 
thermometer should have a little vaseline put on it 
before introducing it into the rectum, it should be intro- 
duced slowly and if any obstruction is met with should 
be turned between the fingers and its direction slightly 
changed. If after the introduction feces are passed the 
temperature should again be taken after shaking down 
the mercury. Thermometers are fragile, so should be 
watched when in use. 

The breathing if hurried can be noticed by the move- 
ments of the body, in some cases at the flanks and nos- 
trils, if it is desired to count the respirations, the palm 
(which must be odorless) of one hand can be held in 
front of one nostril. 

Sounds within the chest are only capable of interpre- 
tation by the expert. In the horse the breathing is nat- 
urally regular and has a rate of 12 to 14 respirations per 
minute, in cattle 15 per minute, the calf a little faster, 
18 to 20 a minute. Sheep are easily excited and when 
so or exerted respirations are quite fast, when at rest 
they number 18 to 20. The breathing rates are reliable 
guides in horses, fairly so in cattle, but are of little value 
in sheep, towards the detection of disease. To examine 
the eye membranes (the conjunctiva) stand at the near 
side, place the left hand flat on the nose, and with the 
right thumb and forefinger examine the eye, by pressing 



Nursing of Sick Animals. 151 

the eyeball into the socket; the nasal membrane is exam- 
ined as follows: Hold the lower lip with one hand, with 
the finger and thumb of the other dilate the nostril. The 
attendant should note whether the muzzle is dry or 
moist, the skin hot, dry, tight or harsh, whether shiver- 
ing or fevered, the patient will also be watched so as to 
note whether he changes his position often, getting up or 
lying down, pawing or retching (attempts at vomiting). 
The condition of the feces and urine whether the former 
are hard, dry, slimy or coated with mucus, whether 
worms are seen in the feces will also be noted and 
reported to the veterinarian, and while the work may 
seem onerous, attention to details is very essential in the 
nursing and treatment of veterinary patients. 

The reluctance to eat, absence from the feed trough, 
hanging behind the flock or herd are all valuable indi- 
cations to the careful stockman, even the eating of dirt 
or drinking of dirty water (when clean is supplied) 
should be looked into and the cause found. 

Symptoms are generally more or less plentiful and 
only need cultivation of one's powers of observation to 
detect them, consequently we should expect that the 
person most frequently with animals in health should be 
the readiest to detect any symptoms of ill-health, reason- 
ing still further, it is readily comprehended that the best 
veterinarians will, after a good college training, come 
from the ranks of the stockmen. 

Watering, in healthy animals, should take place before 
feeding, slight quantities may be given after, this applies 
more particularly to horses, animals at liberty will drink 
as needed. The practice of refusing a drink to a warm 



152 Veterinarg Elements. 

horse is cruel; while excessive quantities of very cold 
water are dangerous he should not be offered feed such 
as hay without a drink, two to four quarts of water will 
not hurt any horse, no matter how warm, letting a warm 
animal stand in a draft to cool off is where the danger 
lies. Ice cold water should never be given at any time, 
colics and abortions may result from its use. The amount 
of water may be limited if the animal is purging (scour- 
ing) or passing large quantities of urine (diabetic). 
While horses will rarely drink warmed water, if the 
chill is taken off it is better for cases of lung troubles; 
milking cows are given warm water by some dairymen in 
winter with good results. 

Salt should be placed before animals at all times, in 
feverish conditions horses will often eat large quantities, 
and can be permitted to do so without danger to them. 
Salt is a condiment which promotes digestion and aids in 
tissue buildiug. 

Grooming should be of the toilet order, the eyes, nose 
and dock being sponged, the coat smoothed, the legs 
hand rubbed, especially if cold, when bandaging will be 
useful, the ears should be stripped and the clothes 
changed, beyond these the animal should not be worried. 

If the patient is lying down continually, it should be 
well bedded and its position changed at least twice 
daily. 

Exercise is rarely needed, especially in case of wounds 
or fractures, the box should afford all the exercise neces- 
sary, in convalescence from lung troubles a certain 
amount of exercise is beneficial, the lack of such exer- 
cise in lung cases being detrimental to the case. The 



Nursing of Sick Animals. 153 

patient must not be put to work unless quite recovered; 
it is a good safe rule to never work a horse that misses 
a feed or two until the cause is found and removed. 
The animal that does not eat cannot reasonably be 
expected to work either in the traces or making flesh 
and milk. 

Feeding Sick Animals. It must be borne in mind that 
food or drink should not be forced on sick stock, that 
what food is presented should be tempting, to be so it 
must be fresh, all traces of the last offering having been 
removed, in fact if an animal does not clean up its allow- 
ance within a reasonable time the materials should be 
removed so as to avoid tainting the feed box. The same 
rule applies to the drinking water. 

Laxative food is indicated in sickness, with few excep- 
tions, in fact those cases laid up on account of wounds 
need laxative food and a reduction in quantity. Variety 
counts for a great deal with the sick animal, for such 
purposes boiled food, bran mashes, grass, carrots, pota- 
toes, small green wheat, oats, corn, etc., may be used in 
limited quantities. Milk and eggs are also of value, but 
will have to be given in a drench as a rule. The bran 
mash should be made as follows: Scald a pail, throw out 
the water, put in a gallon of bran and a tablespoonful of 
salt, add two to three pints of boiling water, depending 
on the consistency desired, mix well and cover up for 15 
minutes, when it may be placed before the patient. A 
tablespoonful or two of powdered ginger added to a bran 
mash makes a nice feed for a tired or over driven horse, 
and should be given before oats are offered. Horses will 
rarely burn themselves, they do not care for sloppy 



154 Veterinary Elements. 

mashes. To make linseed (flaxseed) tea take 1 lb. of 
the seed and boil in four to six quarts of water until the 
grains are soft. The linseed tea and bran may be com- 
bined with benefit. Hay tea — run good hay through 
the cutting box and half fill a pail with it, then fill up 
with boiling water, let stand until cold and give the clear 
fluid. Raw linseed oil is often given in the feed in quan- 
tities of from J to \ pint daily, it is very 'valuable in 
Heaves, and puts a gloss on the hide, besides acting 
mildly on the bowels. 

Backraking. The operation of unloading the hind 
bowel will in some eases have to be performed by the 
attendant, although the use of the injection pump has 
done away, to a large extent, with the necessity for the 
operation of backraking. The hands and arms should 
be well oiled and the nails pared before introduction. 

Mustard is often applied to the sides in cases of lung 
troubles, although opinions as to the value of such ap- 
plications differ, a mild application to the abdomen in 
bowel troubles, diarrhoea, etc., is often valuable. 

Take a pound-tin of mustard, empty into a bowl, adding 
cold water, one and one-half tinfuls, mixing up well to 
form a paste, in some cases the hair should be clipped. 
Rub the paste in well with the hands; cover the mustard 
area with paper, and thus avoid soiling the blankets. 
Put on a blanket from below, and two above, which 
should be fastened with surcingles, etc. ; try and keep 
the animal on his feet for thirty minutes. In two hours 
the mustard may be washed off, only exposing one side 
at a time; if the stable is a cold one, leave the mustard 
on until the following day, when it should be removed 



Nursing of SicJc Animals. 155 

with a brush and curry comb. The blistered surface 
should be dressed with oil, sweet lard, or vaseline after 
the removal of the blistering agent. 

Bandaging in the stockman's patients is more frequently 
performed on the limbs than elsewhere, one reason being 
that the size and difficulty of retention on other parts of 
our patients renders a bandage useless. Bandages are 
used to hold parts together as in fractures (breaks) or 
wounds, to give pressure and support in sprains and 
filled or swelled legs, during training; to equalize the 
circulation (in chill, etc.) and to hold dressings in place; 
for such purposes three kinds are used: 1. The stiffened 
bandage, made so by the application of starch or plaster 
of paris. 2. The flannel or cotton bandage. 3. The 
cotton batting bandage. 

The stiff bandage is made from cotton torn in strips 
which are thoroughly impregnated with the stiffening 
material, the strips should be about two inches wide and 
three feet long, splints of tin, one inch wide may be 
used in addition — bound in with the bandage in fact. 

The flannel bandage should be about eight feet long 
and four inches wide; red flannel is preferable. To be 
ready for use the bandage should be rolled with the 
tapes inside. The bandage is unrolled about eight inches 
and placed obliquely across the outside of the leg close 
to the knee, reaching about the center of the joint, the 
rolled part being turned outward, downward and for- 
ward, continuing down to the fetlock, and around it and 
brought back by winding close to the knee, the loose end 
is turned down, the folds of the bandage carried over it, 
the tapes being tied about the middle of the cannon bone. 



156 Veterinary Elements. 

It is seldom of much use applying bandages around the 
hock or above the knee, the movements of the limbs, 
will tend to displace them; for such purposes the truss 
bandage is recommended. If a bandage is to be worn 
during exercise it should not go below the fetlock. 

3. The cotton batting bandage is made and applied as 
follows: Take two yards of batting about ten inches 
wide, wrap the leg with it, over that apply a calico 
bandage loosely, then over that a similar bandage 
tightly. The entire bandage may be left on twenty-four 
to forty-eight hours; it is especially useful in sprains or 
filled legs, due to poor condition. The limbs should be 
hand-rubbed in all cases after the removal of bandages, 
and should be extended and flexed. Do not use dirty, 
caked or hard bandages; ordinary bandages should be 
removed morning and night, care being taken that they 
are not tied too tightly. 

Washing the bodies of animals is not a general practice, 
mainly on account of the diffculty in drying them. Some 
horsemen sponge their charges with cold water after a 
hard day's work, thereby removing the sweat; its abuse 
must not be permitted. 

The limbs rarely need washing unless in very muddy 
weather, or when affected with some skin trouble, 
the less often the better; when washing is done, good 
Castile soap should be used, and the legs be well dried by 
the use of dry bran or saw dust. 

A wet horse should be rubbed dry with wisps of dry 
straw before putting on the blanket or leaving for the 
night; slight walking exercise under cover would be 
beneficial in such cases. 



Nursing of Sick Animals. 157 

Singeing by the use of a lamp is done to remove long 
hairs from the jowl and thighs. 

Clipping is a very useful process in horses that grow a 
very heavy coat of hair during the fall and winter; such 
animals when worked sweat freely and are apt to get 
chilled unless clipped, colds and lung troubles resulting 
from the sweat being retained in the hair. Horses that 
are blanketed continually while in the stable seldom re- 
quire clipping, the tendency of such clothing being to 
render the hair fine, thin and glossy; show cattle are 
clothed for the same purpose as are show sheep. Some 
people make a practice of clipping the back and sides of 
horses, leaving the hair on the limbs and belly. Clip- 
ped horses should be blanketed when forced to stand 
outside. 

Inflammation and its Signs. When speaking of sick 
animals certain terms are used, supposed to be intel- 
ligible to everybody; the word inflammation is often 
used, and when used alone means practically nothing; 
information is only afforded when one states where that 
inflammation occurred, e. g., the expression, inflamma- 
tion of the lungs (pneumonia) means that the inflam- 
matory process involved thelungs; pleurisy, inflammation 
of the pleura involved that membrane, and so on; in- 
flammation of the bowels (enteritis), of the peritoneum 
(peritonitis), of the liver (hepatitis), of the kidney 
(nephritis), of the womb (metritis), all tell the listener 
the location of the trouble. 

The inflammatory process is liable to occur in almost 
any part; a brief description of the changes taking- 
place in that part will be interesting. Inflammation is 



158 Veterinary Elements. 

the succession of changes taking place in a living tissue, 
the result of injury, provided that injury is not severe 
enough to at once destroy the vitality and structure of the 
tissue; briefly it is the reaction of the tissues after injury. 
The signs of inflammation, viz. : Pain, heat, redness and 
swelling are familiar to all; the pain being due to the 
pressure on the nerves of the part, the redness and heat 
to the increased supply of blood at the part, the swelling 
to the exudation of lymph. The process is as follows: 
The blood supply to a part is increased, the circulation 
eventually becomes slower, and the blood vessels en- 
gorged; the red cells accumulate in the center of the 
stream, and owing to the pressure there is escape of the 
white cells and some of the plasma. The injury becomes 
repaired in several ways, these white cells may absorb the 
wasted material and be taken away by the lymphatics, 
or the cells of the part may absorb the white cells; if the 
white cells are too numerous to be thus removed, they 
may die and be thrown off as matter (pus). If the 
exudation into the tissues is allowed to remain there, 
it will coagulate, due to the fibrin, and as a result forma- 
tion of fibrous bands (adhesions) which may cause 
permanent enlargement of a part; thus interfering with 
its movement, circulation and therefore its nutrition. 
The best way to remove the exudation is by applying 
pressure to the parts, this must, however, be done before 
the exudate becomes solid. 



CHAPTEE XIV. 
BREEDING AND SOME OF ITS EFFECTS. 

The stockman is dependent on the offspring of animals 
for his main source of income, consequently their birth 
and after treatment together with treatment of the dam 
both before and after giving birth to the young animal 
becomes of great importance to him. Accidents at birth, 
diseases of the new born, abortions, all tend to reduce 
his profits, consequently to minimize loss he must know 
how to prevent and meet disease. 

The reproduction of the young constitutes the science 
of Obstetrics; while generation is a natural healthy pro- 
cess, domestication has more or less interfered with its 
natural healthy ending; various diseases often occur 
which consequently call for treatment. The earlier stages 
of obstetrics, such as the signs and duration of heat, the 
process of conception, the time employed carrying the 
young (gestation) bave been discussed; parturition, or 
the act of bringing forth the young and the subsequent 
treatment of dam and offspring will now receive atten- 
tion. 

Pregnancy. It is important to know the signs of an 
animal being with young, or as it is often expressed, 
pregnant, such are increased docility; a tendency to fat- 
ten; a depraved appetite (tendency to eat dirt, etc.); and 
a cessation of heat, not always infallible. Other signs 
more significant are shown towards the latter end of the 



160 Veterinary Elements. 

pregnancy, namely, slowness of action, enlargement of 
the belly and of the udder, presence of milk in the udder, 
and movements of the fetus in the dam, the latter being 
shown after feeding or drinking, especially of cold water. 
During the period of gestation (carrying the young) the 
treatment of the dam should be natural, plenty of exer- 
cise, not of a violent character, good nutritious food, 
easily digested and of a slightly laxative nature; no 
mouldy, spoiled food or grasses with ergot or smut on 
should be used. The drinking water should be pure and 
not ice cold, the stables should be clean and free from 
odors, pregnant mares seem to be very easily affected by 
smells. Mares should have light work towards the end 
of the pregnancy, and should not be used to saddle or 
asked to back loads or work in slippery places at that 
time. Kindness should be the only treatment meted 
out, together with plenty of pure air and exercise, with 
an avoidance of fattening as far as possible, and by so 
doing keep the muscular system in good tone; if too much 
succulent food is given ewes with lamb the lambs are 
apt to come soft and flabby. No purgatives (except to 
cows liable to milk fever) should be given to pregnant 
animals and surgical operations should be postponed 
until after delivery. Mares may be worked safely right 
up to foaling, I have myself done so, removing mares 
from the harness to bring forth strong, healthy foals. 
Cows are usually dried about six weeks before the time 
of calving. The careful stockman will have in his breed- 
ing book the date at which gestation will be expected to 
end, and for a short time previous to that time the dam 
should be given a clean, roomy, well bedded box. 



Breeding and Some of Its Effects. 161 

Special farrowing pens have been constructed for sows. 
the principle being to protect the young pigs from the 
sow lying on them, a board ledge six or eight inches 
wide around the stall, securely nailed about one foot 
from the floor is a common way of protecting the young 
pigs. Valuable mares are generally watched at the time 
of parturition so as to render assistance at once; the 
faithfulness of the shepherd at such a time (lambing) 
has been the theme of writers, from a financial stand- 
point it pays, as a chilled lamb is soon lost, a ewe with 
her first lamb often needs assistance; especially as some 
animals refuse their young and have to be coaxed to take 
them, for which various methods have been devised. 
Dr. Reed of the O. A. C, G-uelph, Can., recommends a 
little brandy rubbed on the lips of the mare inclined to 
disown her foal, and also rubs some of the liquor on the 
foal. 

The time of parturition has arrived according to the 
breeding book, which contains the record of service, etc. , 
there are, however, symptoms shown by the pregnant 
animal, which afford reliable indications of the nearness 
of the act. The swelling of the external genitals (vulva), 
enlargement of the udder, hollowness of the rump, espe- 
cially in cows, of the space between the pin bones and 
the tail head, wax on the teats in mares, a flow of milk, 
making of the bed by sows, glistening appearance of the 
udder, uneasiness, a desire for solitude, slight pains 
gradually increasing, followed by the pushing forth of 
the water bag and the possible escape of its contents 
show that labor is not only close, but that it has started. 
11 



162 Veterinary Elements. 

If all goes well the head and fore feet are presented 
(sometimes the hind feet) and the young animal is in a 
short time in a new world. The natural delivery in 
mares is of short duration, only five to fifteen minutes 
usually elapsing after extrusion of the water bag; the 
cow may take one to two hours to deliver the calf, ex- 
tending to that many days. Ewes take about fifteen 
minutes to deliver or less, and if twins are present the 
interval between births may be from 15 minutes to two 
hours or even days. Assistance should not be offered 
until the water bag shows. 

The sow takes a variable time to deliver, depending 
on the number of pigs — may take from ten minutes to 
several hours. In natural cases little assistance is needed, 
and when given should be of the right kind; the attend- 
ants should only apply traction when the young animal 
is in the right position, and only when the expulsive 
effort is being made, the direction of the traction should 
be away from the back bone, that is towards the hocks 
of the dam, downward if the animal is standing. The 
foal is often born in its membranes, and should be released 
immediately from them, especially about the head; any 
mucus present being removed from the mouth and nostrils. 
The membranes of the calf and lamb do not always fol- 
low right after delivery; in the cow they remain for days; 
in the ewe rarely so; while in the sow it is the exception 
for such to occur; the reason for retention of the mem- 
branes in ruminants (cow and ewe) is due to the pecul- 
iarity of the attachment of the membranes in those 
animals, which will be remembered from the description 
of arrangement of the mucous (lining) membrane of the 



Breeding and Some of Its Effects. 



163 



uterus in those animals. If the presentation has been 
right, the usual labor is of short duration, if, however, 
the pains have begun and persisted for 
a long time without delivery, some hin- 
drance to the normal delivery may be 
suspected, the cause of such unnatural 
happenings are numerous; may be due 
to wrong presentation, such as two hind 
legs and one fore leg coming together; 
the animal coming upside down, or with 
the head turned back, excess in volume 
of the fetus, contraction of the genital 
passages, enlargement of the head, due 
to tumors, etc. In such cases the em- 
ployment of a veterinarian is advisable 
and profitable, because he is acquainted 
with the parts, has the proper instru- 
ments and drugs. The time of calling the 
professional man should not be left until 
the dam is exhausted or injured in- 
ternally from the movements of the 
fetus; the longer such cases are left the 
greater the danger of inflammation of 
the womb or tearing or wounding in- 
ternally of the dam. If the stockman 
is sufficiently expert let him bare his 
arm to the shoulder, anoint with car- 
bolized oil — one part of carbolic acid 
to ten of linseed oil — introduce the arm into the 
passage and endeavor to find the cause of the trouble. 
If a head and one foreleg are shown fasten ropes 



PIG FORCEPS. 



164 Veterinary Elements. 

(one-fourth inch) on the parts, push them forward 
into the cavity and then try and get the missing limb, 
raise it and bring all into the natural position, the 
head between the two fore feet; if the head is down and 
the fore feet presented, rope each foot, push them for- 
ward and try to raise the head and bring it to 
wards you along with the feet. The stockman will on 
examination, better understand the conditions than from 
any written directions, and will be successful according 
as he adapts himself to meet these conditions. Mares 
and cows are more easily delivered when in the standing 
position; if they lie down the work becomes harder to 
perform. In cases of difficult delivery in ewes an assist- 
ant may be got to hold the ewe with the hind legs up in 
the air, the head down, thus throwing the bowels down- 
wards and consequently giving more room to work, or 
the ewe may be turned on her back, but kept in this posi- 
tion only for a short time. In animals running overtime 
Nature is generally allowed to take its course; it might 
be advisable in mares that have gone overtime, and who 
have had milk in their udders for a few days, to attempt 
delivery. 

Attention to the Newborn. The treatment of the 
young animal is not very formidable, as stated; remove 
the membranes, clean out the mouth and nostrils; examine 
also to see if the newborn has the natural apertures for 
the passage of urine or feces. In some cases attention 
to the navel and its cord are necessary, especially in the 
foal, the navel string should be cut about one and one- 
half inches from the body and securely tied and thor- 
oughly dressed with some good antiseptic daily, until it 



Breeding and Some of Its Effects. 165 

dries up and shrivels and drops off. In lambs, calves and 
pigs slight scraping of the finger nail on the cord will 
sever the string and prevent bleeding. If life seems 
about gone, whip with a wet towel, work the fore limbs, 
breathe into the nostrils at intervals coinciding with the 
limb movements, rub the body dry, and bring to a warm 
place, a slight stimulant such as brandy and water or a 
little sweet nitre and warm milk may also be given with 
benefit. Get the newborn to suckle as soon as possible 
so that it may get the action of the first milk (colostrum) 
and thus remove the meconium — the accumulated excre- 
ment of fetal life. The meconium may have to be 
removed; use the oiled finger, or injections of warm water 
and oil; avoid giving purgatives; foals are often started 
scouring, and are lost as a result of giving such medicine. 
A heaped teaspoonful of fresh (unsalted) butter may be 
given to the foal with good results if a little constipated; 
it a ewe refuses her lamb the one refused (in case of 
twins) should be rubbed over with the one taken, or if 
one is dead, skin it and put the skin on over the one re- 
fused, or put the ewe and refused lamb together by them- 
selves for a time. In case of ewes the wool should be 
trimmed from around the udder to allow the lambs to 
get at the teat, this will also prevent the lamb sucking 
the wool with the result sometimes of wool-balls in the 
stomachs. After getting the young animal to suckle 
once, leave the dam and offspring to themselves; if the 
afterbirth has come away, remove and bury; the dis- 
gusting practice of letting animals eat the membranes 
should not be permitted. The usual practice with dairy- 
men and stockmen with dual-purpose cows, is to remove 



166 Veterinary Elements. 

the calf a short time afterbirth — two days — the calf 
being fed whole rnilk for four weeks and then gradually 
changed to skim milk, the feeding being done three or 
four times daily, the quantity at the start being about 
two pounds at each feed. 

The treatment of the dam after delivery will determine 
to a great extent the growth and development of the off- 
spring, if the dam is limited in quantity of food, or poor 
quality given, the offspring will be weak, stunted or of 
slow growth. Keep the dam comfortable and do not 
annoy with many attentions, if at all chilled, blanket, 
give warm mashes, laxative food (grass, clover hay, 
bran and oats) milk, and water with the chill off for a few 
days. If intending to show foals the dam had better 
not be worked, if not the dam may be worked for a 
quarter of a day, later half days until getting back to 
the usual routine, if worked the foals should be placed 
in boxes together and fed, entire rest from work should 
be allowed mares for at least a week after foaling. 

So far the conditions after delivery have been consid- 
ered as normal, unfortunately for the stockman such a 
happy termination is not always the case, as such com- 
plications as retention of the afterbirth, inversion of the 
womb, bleeding from the womb, garget milk fever, 
may affect the dam, and scours, navel-ill, constipation, 
indigestion may affect the offspring. 

Retention of the afterbirth (fetal membranes, placenta). 
This condition, while rare in the mare and sow, is com- 
paratively common in cows for reasons already men- 
tioned; if, however, retention does occur in the mare, 
skilled assistance should be obtained and the removal of 



Breeding and Some of Its Effects. 167 

the membrane be accomplished inside of 24 hours. Re- 
moval of the membranes by hand in sows would be diffi- 
cult owing to the smallness of the genital "passage, for 
such purpose 1 to 2 teaspoonfuls of fluid extract of ergot, 
repeated if necessary in half an hour, will often have the 
desired effect, in ewes Stewart recommends an infusion 
of laurel berries and aniseed. The membranes may be 
left in cows without ill effect for two or three days, a 
longer time especially in warm weather should not elapse 
before removal is performed, if left for a longer time 
putrefactive changes begin, the cow falls off in her milk, 
the appetite gets poor, she gets dull and feverish, and 
smells badly, shows loss of flesh and may eventually 
show signs of blood poisoning due to absorption of the 
products of putrefaction, a cow once allowed to show the 
symptoms stated is hard to bring back to her natural 
good health, in fact is usually ruined to all intents and 
purposes. Eemoval should be performed somewhat as 
follows: bare the hands and arms, and anoint with car- 
bolized oil, never neglect this precaution or blood poison- 
ing and death may be the result; introduce one hand and 
with the fingers loosen the cotyledons separately by run- 
ning the first and second fingers each side of the cotyle- 
don and the thumb on top, press down with the thumb 
and lift with the fingers, thus practically skinning the 
membrane off the buttons (cotyledons); before removal 
of the membrane a button feels very smooth, after removal 
it feels rough to the touch; the other hand should be em- 
ployed to take up the slack, thus gradually removing 
the afterbirth; considerable time is necessary for the 
proper performance of the work when one is told that 



168 Veterinary Elements. 

there are about 100 buttons on the uterine surface. If a 
large portion is extruded, a weight may be attached and 
the membranes come away of themselves; after removal 
the womb should be flushed (syringed) out with an anti- 
septic, such as permanganate of potash, 1 oz., water 2 
quarts, or creolin, 1 part, water 50 parts. If a feverish 
condition exists, determined by the use of the thermom- 
eter, the flushings should be given daily, as shreds of 
the membrane may have been retained. Animals in 
good condition are not as liable to this condition as those 
underfed, or aborters. Some stockmen feed whole oats 
for a week or two before calving as a preventive. 

Inversion of the womb, casting of the withers is a seri- 
ous condition, especially in sows, mares and ewes, and 
as a rule necessitates the employment immediately of 
the veterinarian. It may be due to a rough delivery or 
prolonged labor, too much traction on the membranes, 
poor condition due to lack of feed, or as a result of stand- 
ing with the hind end lower than the fore end. The 
stockman may have to return the organ and should pre- 
pare himself as for removal of the afterbirth; have the 
animal kept on its feet, then cleanse the womb with an 
antiseptic solution, containing also laudanum 2 oz. to the 
quart of the solution, removing any part of the after- 
birth that may be attached; then by doubling his fist 
and applying it to the center of the mass press it stead- 
ily and gently forward, when the animal strains being- 
content just to hold his own, if the straining is severe, 
pinch the back, put on a tight, strong girth or give a 
large dose; 2 oz. of laudanum; when the organ is returned 
to its place a rope truss or wooden pessary may be 




ONE FORM OF A TRUSS. 



Breeding and Some of Its Effects. 169 

applied to keep it there. A pessary is a very satisfac- 
tory instrument to use and may be made as follows: 
Take a smooth stick three feet long, 1^ inches in diame- 
ter, at one end tie clean 
rags around to make it 
the size of one's fist, at 
the other end bore a 
hole through the stick, 
through which a \ inch 
rope may be passed; the 
large end is passed into 
the genital passage until 
it fits snug against the 
neck of the womb, the 
rope passed through the other end is by its two ends 
fastened to a neck collar and is thus held in place. The 
length of the rope required will vary with the length of 
the animal; the pessary should be smeared with vase- 
line or clean sweet lard at the large end. Straining 
after the return of the womb may occur, and if continued 
may be due to the organ not having been returned to 
its natural position or else to the presence of some of 
the membranes. A certain amount of straining is bound 
to occur, the result of the introduction of the pessary, 
such may be overcome by a dose of some anodyne, 
•e. g\, laudanum. Pigs' bladders and bottles have been 
used as pessaries, being allowed to remain in position 
for seven to ten days. 

Bleeding after delivery (hemorrhage) is not easy to con- 
trol and needs the attention of the veterinarian. 



170 Veterinary Elements. 

Garget (inflammation of the udder, mammitis), is a 
condition occuring in milking animals, often the result 
of carelessness or ignorance, and serious to a greater or 
less degree in the immediate symptoms and the probable 
results. The specific causes are: injuries, exposure to 
cold, oversecretion, retention or injection of milk, in- 
troduction of germs, from dirty milkers, unclean bedding 
and quarters. Its prevention in animals during the 
weaning period is not hard, the methods are as follows: 
Mares need to be milked out occasionally, or the foal 
limited as to the number of times it suckles each day, 
some mares are irritable if attempts are made to milk 
them, and they may need the application of the twitcli : 
by putting them to work, limiting the food and giving 
that food dry, the secretion of milk will usually cease; 
if however, it persists, the veterinarian should be asked 
to prescribe. Cows dry easily as a rule, too easily for 
the majority of people; it may be necessary to milk 
several times daily after calving to avoid the trouble. 
Ewes need careful attention at weaning time, and should 
be milked for two or three successive mornings, then one 
or two milkings at intervals of one day, then later at in- 
tervals of two days; as a rule, at the end of that time 
they are dry, the secretion of milk having stopped. The 
proper position in which to milk a ewe is as follows: 
Get her with her head in a corner, then straddle her, 
and by bending over the shepherd can reach each teat 
with his hands; if the ewe goes to back up a slight 
pressure with the chin at the tail head arrests the move- 
ment, which if forward can be checked by pressure with 
the knees of the milker. Sows are dried up by grad- 



Breeding and Some of Its Effects. 171 

ually removing the pigs, taking away one or two at a 
time, the process taking about a week or ten days. If 
the offspring of any of the animals mentioned are un- 
able to take the milk supplied, it should either be milked 
out by hand or by another animal. 

The symptoms are: Swelling of the udder, either of 
one or more quarters, there is considerable heat and pain 
present, the parts being very sensitive to the touch, the 
skin may be reddened, and a swelling along the belly; 
thick, ropy and bloody milk may be discharged, the supply 
of milk from the affected part being less than usual, the 
udder feels hard to the touch, rise of temperature as 
shown by the thermometer. The treatment needed in 
mild cases will only be a thorough rubbing with clean 
sweet lard, fresh unsalted butter or oil; recovery will, 
even in these cases, be hastened by a thorough bathing 
for forty-five to sixty minutes with water as hot as the 
hand can bear. Let the offspring suckle or else milk out 
frequently; if very painful use a clean metal milk tube 
(teat siphon). The following liniment is very useful after 
bathing or poulticing the udder: 

Fluid extract of Belladona i ounce. 

Tincture of Aconite 4 ounces. 

Tincture of Opium Bounces. 

Raw linseed oil to make 1 quart. 

A dose of purgative medicine is also very useful in 
cutting short an attack. In severe cases some antiseptic 
should be added to the bath; the bathing being performed 
two or three times daily. Teat siphons should be boiled 
occasionally, and each time of using should be soaked in 
some antiseptic for ten minutes; the teat siphons should 



172 Veterinary Elements. 

be oiled before introducing up the teat. The loss of a 
part of the udder is often the result of garget; the animal 
must be watched at the next delivery as the teat may be 
plugged; sometimes stricture of the teat is the 
result, in such cases a dilator will be needed. 
Darning .needles and goose quills should not 
be used, as the delicate lining of the teat may 
be injured and closure of the teat be the result. 
Bloody milk may be considered as a symptom 
of garget. 

The contagious form of garget calls for 
similar treatment with the plentiful use of 
antiseptics in addition. 

Milk fever, parturient appoplexy, parturient 
paresis, (the latter term the more modern), 
is the bane of the dairy man, it is a disease 

[peculiar to the cow and only attacks heavy 
milkers; a cow in fleshy condition before 
calving is predisposed to the disease. Many 
theories have been advanced to account for 
M " k 1# Tnbe the disease; the latest, that of Schmidt, being 

(Self-re- 
taining, the one most generally accepted; he claims 

that a morbid process goes on in the udder by which 

poisonous material is produced which is absorbed. 

The sooner this disease appears after calving the more 

fatal it is; it generally follows an easy, rapid delivery. 

The symptoms are well marked, every dairyman being 

more or less familiar with them, probably the first seen 

is a slight unsteadiness of the gait, crossing of the hind 

legs and a swaying motion when walking; later on the 

the head droops, no notice is taken of the calf; there is 



Breeding and Some of Its Effects. 173 

stamping of the feet and whisking of the tail, paralysis 
comes on ; the cow becomes stupid and the eyes dull, 
and may lie on the breast bone, with the head around to 
the flank or else flat on the side. The breathing is loud, 
the urine and feces are retained and rumination (chew- 
ing of the cud) ceases, the amount of milk given is 
lessened, and in bad cases bloating may occur. 

The most satisfactory treatment is of the preventive 
order, by limiting the quantity of concentrated food and 
by giving a purgative dose of salts just before and im- 
mediately after calving. Schmidt's treatment is highly 
lauded; it consists of the injection of a drug (iodide of 
potash) into the udder by means of a funnel to which is 
attached rubber tubing and a milk tube. One or two 
drams of the drug are dissolved in one pint of cold 
boiled water, one-fourth of the amount being siphoned 
into each teat, the udder being well hand-rubbed after 
the injection; a one-ounce dose of aloes is also given if 
the cow is conscious. The udder injection may be re- 
peated twice or three times in the day; reports of this 
treatment seem to indicate that two injections at the 
most are sufficient for the usual cases. The following 
treatment has been very successful in the hands of Dr. 
Hugo Eeed, of Guelph, Canada; it is 

Gamboge 1 ounce. 

Ginger 4 ounces. 

Common salt : J pound. 

Epsom salts 1 J pounds. 

Dissolve the above in three pints of water and give as 
a drench, give through a rubber hose, six feet long, f 
inch in diameter, passed into the stomach, by this means 



174 Veterinary Elements. 

avoiding the frequent cause of death in these cases, 
namely, passage of the liquid the wrong way. One hour 
later give: 

Chloral Hydrate 2 ounces. 

Bromide of Potash 2 ounces. 

dissolved in a little water, one hour later, one-fourth of 
the quantities above mentioned are given, repeated at 
three hour intervals. The patient should be kept well 
bedded and propped up on its breastbone (sternum), the 
milk drawn occasionally, the urine and feces also being 
removed at regular intervals, the latter by means of 
injections. 

Dropping after calving (sometimes termed wolf in the 
tail) occurs in some herds and is best remedied by the 
use of nerve tonics, it may occur previous to calving if 
the dam is at all weakened or has been fed innutritious 
food. Hollow horn, wolf in tail and other diseases of 
that nature in cows due to starvation, are not diseases of 
the various parts as the names would indicate, these 
so-called diseases are never found in herds in charge of 
good stockmen. 



CHAPTER XV. 

DISEASES OF YOUNG STOCK. 

Constipation is a common trouble in foals the first few 
days after birth, the food of the dam just previous to 
delivery not having been of a laxative nature or the first 
milk (colostrum) was not taken by the foal, will thus 
account for this trouble in the majority of cases. Calves, 
lambs and pigs are rarely troubled, as they usually get 
the first milk. The signs of this trouble are straining, 
rolliDg, lying on the back, colicky symptoms, the belly 
tucked up; the foal sucking in a half hearted way, and 
the non-passage of feces are also reliable' indications. 
The preferable way to overcome the trouble is to diet 
the dam, changing to food of a more laxative nature, 
bran mashes with flax seed, the use of purgatives on a 
foal of such a tender age is extremely dangerous. The 
finger may be oiled and introduced into the rectum, the 
contents of a dark tarry ball like nature removed; or a 
cone of soap may be placed in the rectum and left there. 
The injection of one-half ounce of glycerine or two ounces 
of raw linseed oil in two or three ounces of water is 
very useful and may be used in preference to the soap or 
oiled finger. Lambs should be watched their first two 
weeks of life, as the feces tend to stick to the wool around 
the anus and thus form an obstacle to the passage of the 
dung. 



176 Veterinary Elements. 

Scours (or diarrhoea) is as a rule more or less serious, 
the contagious form in calves, termed calf cholera or dys- 
entery being especially so. The common cause of scours 
is the food, either as to its quality or quantity, or regu- 
larity in giving it. In foals the disease is often due to 
the use of purgatives to overcome the preceding trouble 
(constipation); the drinking of warm stale milk, the 
mare being worked and the foal only allowed to suckle 
at long intervals; too rich or too much milk. We may 
then consider scours in any animal a symptom of indi- 
gestion, not as a disease in itself; the looseness of the 
bowels being one evidence of Nature's endeavor to over- 
come the trouble. In calves especially is scouring due 
to over feeding, feeding at too long intervals and the use 
of milk of a poor quality. Lambs sometimes scour if the 
ewes are on pasture of a watery nature, green oats, etc. 
The disease is soon evidenced by colicky pains, refusal 
of food, sour smelling passages, the passage of watery 
feces with rapid loss of strength, in some cases curdled 
milk is mixed with the dung. 

The causes being known the first thing in the treat- 
ment is to remove those causes; if the disease is seen in 
its earliest stages give as one dose: 

Laudanum 1 dram. 

Tincture of Catechu 1 dram. 

Castor Oil 1 ounce. 

The dose may be larger or smaller depending on the size 
of the animal (see dose table p. 129) Lime water in one or 
two ounce doses fed with the milk is useful in overcom- 
ing acidity and the consequent indigestion. Foals 
affected with indigestion due to the dam's milk being: 



Diseases of Young Stock. Ill 

too rich should have the supply limited, the mare being 
milked on the ground, and a dose of pepsin given; raw 
eggs with brandy and several other drugs are often rec- 
ommended. 

Navel-ill is rather a common disease of foals, occasion- 
ally of calves and lambs. The measures to be adopted 
by the stockman are those of a preventive character, such 
as dressing the navel with antiseptics; have the mare to 
foal on the grass, and if the disease has appeared, the 
thorough disinfection of the foaling or calving box or the 
lambing pens, as the case may be. The symptoms shown 
are feverishness and constipation, loss of vigor, being 
quite dull and reluctant to suck; and lameness with 
swelling of one or more joints. The latter symptoms, 
lameness and possibly a swelling of a joint mislead the 
average stockman, he thinks the foal has been stepped 
upon by the dam, when really the cause is the introduc- 
tion of germs by the navel. The navel remains, instead 
of drying up and dropping off, remain on and are clammy 
to the touch and tap-like in appearance. The later 
stages exhibit more swelling of joints, formation of ab- 
scesses and exhaustion usually terminating in death. 
The urine may trickle from the navel in this disease. 
The early employment of a veterinarian will only be 
profitable; the death rate is high on account of skilled 
treatment being given too late. Some authorities con- 
sider this trouble as caused by the same germ as that 
causing contagious abortion. 
12 



178 Veterinary Elements. 

FAILURE TO BREED AND SOME OP THE CAUSES! 

Hindrances to reproduction are many in number and 
varied in their nature, some diseases may render the 
female passages unfit for the fertilizing element of the 
male: the indiscreet use of the male may have caused 
the male fertilizing element to lack vigor or be absent 
entirely; malformations, or the actions of the animals 
before and during mating, may also interfere with pro- 
per fertilization, thus constituting sterility or barrenness; 
it must be understood that the fault is as likely to be in 
the animals of one sex as of the other. 

Sterility or barrenness in males in the majority of cases 
is due to (1) lack of exercise, fleshiness and the too fre- 
quent use of foods of a stimulative or fat forming nature; 
(2) next to these causes, is overindulgence and mastur- 
bation, due to ignorance or cupidity of the owner; (3) 
old age, (4) change of climate; (5) spasm of the urethra, 
tuberculosis or diseases of a weakening nature, and in 
(6) stallions, poor handling at the time of mating. The 
causes being known the cure is evident, no drugs will be 
of use unless the cause is removed. In addition to the 
removal of the cause, either (1) or (2), give 

Pyrophosphate of Iron 1 \ ounces, 

Phosphide of Zinc 48 grains, 

Nux Vomica, powdered 1 ounce, 

mixed and made into twenty-four powders, one to be 
given in the feed three times daily; if due to cause (2) 
limit service (see p. 70), or use a shield to be got from 
dealers in racing harness supplies, and give exercise; 
acclimation, which requires a period of one year to ac- 



Diseases of Young Stock. 179 

coinplish, will overcome the trouble if due to cause (4); 
spasm of the urethra, or proudness, as it is termed by 
horsemen, a condition in which the penis remains erect 
after mating, requires the use of cold water along the 
course of the urethra and the veterinarian to prescribe, 
in some cases a second service overcomes the condition, 
which in the first instance prevented the proper discharge 
of the semen. Cantharides (Spanish fly) must on no ac- 
count be given by the stockman. 

Sterility or barrenness in females is due to a similar 
number of causes, such as (1) fleshiness and lack of exer- 
cise; (2) a closure or (b) a flabby condition of the os 
(neck of the womb); (3) malformations; (4) prolonged 
continence; (5) acid condition of the vagina, the result 
of abortions, retained afterbirths, etc.; tuberculosis, in 
and in breeding, hybrids are also responsible for inabil- 
ity to produce offspring. Sterility, due to cause (1), may 
be overcome by bleeding or the use of a purgative; a 
treatment quite commonly followed by old country breed- 
ers is that of bleeding mares a short time before mating; 
if failure to conceive is due to causes (2) an examination 
will need to be made, the animal is securely tied or other- 
wise restrained, twitched or one fore foot lifted, the hands 
and arms bared, oiled and belladonna applied to the 
fingers, which are formed into a cone, then the endeavor 
is gently and gradually made to dilate the neck of the 
womb, which done, mating may take place in'mares; if 
due to (5) the use of the gelatin capsule, a method in- 
troduced by Mr. Jas. Johnstone, of the Breeders' Gazette, 
Chicago, will be found very useful, in fact in mares hard 
to get with foal the capsule method is worthy of a trial, 



180 Veterinary Elements. 

results in the hands of several breeders warrant an ex- 
tended use of the capsule for this purpose. The capsule 
method is as follows: Procure a gelatin capsule (Plan- 
teu's are good) one-half or one ounce capacity, then have 
the mare served by the stallion, immediately afterwards 
insert the capsule (with the cap removed) into the vagina, 
dip up with it the semen; the capsule containing the 
semen (fertilizing element of the male) is then carried 
forwards and passed through the neck (os) into the womb, 
where it is left, is likely to be very useful in those mares 
that eject the semen after a service. The condition of 
the lining membrane has been mentioned among the 
causes, impregnation is not likely to occur if there is any 
discharge from the vagina, the injection of a solution of 
boric acid (one ounce), permanganate of potash or bak- 
ing soda one ounce in three pints of clean water two 
hours before mating may overcome the acidity, which is 
immediately fatal to the spermatozoa. Chronic bulling 
in cows is best treated by spaying and fattening for mar- 
ket. Sterility (barrenness) in sheep or rather a small 
lamb crop may be due in addition to the causes already 
mentioned as affecting either sex, to the ewes being left 
undocked or untagged, thus preventing the proper per- 
formance of the act of breeding; the latter operation 
(tagging) should be performed every year just at the 
beginning of the breeding season. 



CHAPTER XVI. 
THE COMMON FARM OPERATIONS. 

Securing animals for operations. Methods of Restraint — 
As the stockman's patients will not listen to reason they 
have to be tied or otherwise restrained for all operations, 
in horses we have the twitch, noose twitch and rope 
twitch, the side line, the throwing harness and the stocks. 

The twitch, consisting of a loop large enough to pass the 
hand through (one-quarter inch rope), is fastened to the 
end of a stick, piece of a forkhandle about two feet long, 
the loop applied to the upper lip and twisted several 
times. The rope twitch is generally known as the Bona- 
parte bridle; take a rope, make a simple knot at one 
end, eighteen inches from which make another knot, so 
that the first knot can pass through its loop, thus having 
a loop at one end of the rope, run the free end of the rope 
through the noose, a simple form of halter thus being 
made place the loop in the mouth, the halter part over 
the head, make a half hitch with the free end of the rope, 
pass it over his head and under his upx>er lip, draw mod- 
erately tight. The noose twist consists of a rope with a 
loop which will not run, at one end, the other end is 
passed over the upper part of the neck, under the upper 
lip and through the noose which should be high up on 
the cheek. 

The side line consists of a rope, hobble and a collar; 
the hobble is applied to one hind foot, the rope attached 



182 



Veterinary Elements. 



and run between the forelegs and up through the collar, 
then down through the hobble and up on the outside of 
the limb through the collar again, the attendant raises 
the leg as desired, and holds it in that position by grasp- 
ing all the two outer ropes at the level of the shoulder 
joint. The throwing harness varies with the operator, a 
cheap outfit consists of a strong surcingle, with iron ring, 




THROWING A HORSE FOR OPERATIONS. 

two hobbles, about forty feet of three-quarter inch rope, 
and a couple of strong leg straps, hame straps may be 
used. The surcingle is put on the animal, a long rope 
applied to the headstall, run through a ring on the back, 
the holder standing well in front of the horse; the near 
forefoot is tied up to the surcingle if it is desired to lay 



The Common Farm Operations. 183 

the animal on its near side; the operator pulls steadily 
on the rope, thus drawing the head toward the off flank, 
when the horse will lie down and can be tied securely 
with the hobbles and ropes, the former being placed on 
the hind feet, which are drawn up to the body and tied 
as desired ; the other foreleg may be strapped to the sur- 
cingle also. 

Cattle can be secured by the bulldog forceps in the 
nose, by passiog the tail in front of one hind leg and then 
drawing backwards on it, or by throwing, for which a 
long rope is required with slip noose at one end, which 
is fastend to the head or horns, the free end being passed 
around the body two or three times to form half hitches, 
by pulling steadily on the rope the abdomen is compressed 
and the animal lies down, where it may be secured by 
fastening the halter and the fore feet to a strong, securely 
set post, the hind feet being secured somewhat similarly. 
Hogs when large are best secured by placing a noose 
over the upper jaw and fastening to a strong post; if 
small can either be placed on their backs, an attendant 
sitting straddle of the the neck, facing the hind parts of 
the pig, or the pig can be grasped with both hands, each 
hand holding one fore and one hind leg, the back of the 
pig being pressed firmly against the holder. 

Sheep are usually caught by catching in the flank with 
the hand of the same side and turned by the shepherd, 
who half kneeling on the near side places his left arm in 
front of the sheep's breast, his right hand at the same 
time grasping the off leg just above the hock, pulling 
steadily with his right hand the sheep is placed on its 
rump, on which it is revolved, the shepherd rising to 



184 Veterinary Elements. 

take the position at the animal's back, its head between 
his knees. Lambs are held in a similar position to that 
described for small pigs, for such operations as docking, 
castrating - , etc. 

There are certain operations that the stockman is fre- 
quently called upon to do; simple though they are cer- 
tain precautions are necessary to ensure the greatest 




1-Holding. 2— Milking. 
4.— Catching. 5— Throwing. 



ling feet and position for drenching. 



amount of success, the animals usually affected are not 
of sufficient vn\v°> to justify the expense of a veterinary 
surgeon. The principles governing the healing of wounds 
should be understood, with the changes that go on in a 
part during repair; such an understanding will prevent 
the injudicious use of drugs such as caustics, irritants, 



The Common Farm Operations. 185 

etc., and will impress on the stockman that no materials 
he may apply will heal a wound, but that Nature heals, 
and that his treatment or that of the surgeon is only in 
the nature of assistance. Once that fact is thoroughly 
appreciated, wounds can be scientifically and therefore 
successfully treated. The inflammatory process has been 
described; following that he will often find that pus 
(matter) is present in wounds, the bacteriologist will 
tell him that pus is the result of germs that have 
obtained entrance to the wound, and when one remem- 
bers that pus is made up of dead cells, destroyed by those 
germs, the methods of wound treatment are simplified 
and the stockman has also mastered the principles of 
what is known as the Listerian or antiseptic treatment 
of wounds. Lister was the father of antiseptic surgery, 
the adoption of which has reduced the mortality result- 
ing from wounds to very small proportions. Wounds 
heal in various ways, depending on the severity of the 
wound and the manner in which it was inflicted; exam- 
ples of varieties of wounds are (a) clean cuts as made by 
a sharp knife, these as a rule heal readily; (b) punctures 
caused by running into a part of a blunt body, such as 
the point of a shaft, repair of this variety is slower 
and the injury is more serious than the first kind; (c) 
lacerations, tears such as wounds made with a saw or 
jagged edged instrument; repair is slow in these wounds 
and pus is usually abundant; (d) bruises in which case 
the skin is rarely broken. 

Manner of healing of wounds : 

1. By immediate union, the parts are brought together 
in exact contact and unite at once; there is verv little 



186 Veterinary Elements. 

material needed in this case, therefore any inflammation 
present mnst have been slight. 

2. Union by first-intention, in this form the divided 
edges are glazed over by a fluid (lymph) thrown out 
from them, or the clotting of a thin film of blood; this 
material holds the parts together until permanent union 
by cells takes place; the fluid has to be got rid of before 
permanent healing takes place, a scar results from this 
and the following method. The lymph thrown out 
becomes vascular, i. e., little (capillary) blood vessels 
form in it. 

3. Granulation is the commonest form of healing in 
the lower animals, it is a tedious process accompanied as 
a rule by the formation of pus; in this form lymph is 
thrown out, it accumulates, blood vessels form in it, cells 
cluster around the vessels constituting granulation tissue; 
the upper layer of lymph cells is destroyed and thrown 
off as pus, it has, however, served to protect the deeper 
layers which form a tissue resembling that of the part, 
gradually the discharge of pus ceases, a new surface (the 
scar), white in color, is formed, which gradually disap- 
pears and the wound is said to be healed. If the inflam- 
mation in a wound is unchecked, or there is lack of 
pressure, the small vessels, capillary loops, become dis- 
tended with blood and constitute what is known by every 
one as proud flesh (granulation tissue). Two other 
methods of healing are by union of two granulating surf aces, 
and under a scab. All wounds heal essentially in the 
same manner, viz., by the growth and organization of 
new tissue from the already existing older tissue of the 
parts. 



The Common Farm Operations. 187 

The general treatment of wounds may be briefly stated 
as follows: First to stop the bleeding and remove any 
foreign substance, such as dirt; second, to protect from 
germs; third, to bring the parts as closely together as 
possible, keep down excessive inflammation, and prevent 
the accumulation of discbarges. A wound is said to be 
healthy when it looks like a clean cut; unhealthy when 
it is pale, covered with pus, small clots of blood or proud 
flesh; inflamed or angry when hot and of a dark red 
color; indolent when the process of healing seems stopped 
before the proper time, e. g. , a sitfast. It may be stated 
as a general rule that if a Avound continues dry, and not 
ill-smelling, looks healthy, etc., that it should not be 
interfered with, but if pus forms it should be washed 
clean once or twice a day with clean warm or cold water, 
a syringe or piece of cheese cloth (do not use a sponge, 
the cheese cloth can be burnt after once using), then 
apply some antiseptic solution or dry antiseptic powder. 

Control of bleeding (hemorrhage) is the first thing to 
do in connection with wounds, as the animal's life blood 
may very soon flow away, if the bleeding is from an ar- 
tery; bleeding from veins as a rule is seldom dangerous, 
unless the animal is in an already weakened condition; 
sometimes bleeding is arrested by the contraction of the 
muscular coat of the artery; an artery partially cut 
through wiircontinue to bleed, when if entirely cut across 
the bleeding will often stop, owing to the fact that the 
muscular contraction mentioned becomes possible. Sur- 
gical methods of stopping bleeding are by the use of 
forceps performing torsion (twisting), in this form the 
divided end of the artery is seized by the forceps and 



188 Veterinary Elements. 

twisted until it breaks loose from the forceps; the emas- 
culator and ecraseur are instruments partially working on 
this principle, they crush the coats of the vessels; tying, 
or ligating, as it is termed, silk, twine, catgut or other 
materials are used for this purpose; styjrtics are occasion- 
ally used, they cause clotting of the blood and thus stop 
the flow mechanically, for such purposes tincture of iron, 
turpentine and other drugs are used; the hot iron (cau- 
tery) is also reliable for this purpose, in docking and 
castrating of lambs, and sometimes in horses, in the larger 
animals bleeding may occur when the scab left from the 
burning falls off, usually about seven days after the oper- 
ation. The use of dirty materials, such as cobwebs, earth, 
etc., are dangerous, as these materials often contain 
germs of various diseases, e. g., lockjaw (tetanus). Hot 
water (above 110 Fahrenheit) or ice cold water will also 
stop bleeding, warm water encourages it. The hands 
should be cleaned and dipped frequently in the antisep- 
tic solution when dressing a wound. Stitches are not 
used as frequently as formerly in wounds of animals, the 
powerful muscular contraction tends to tear them out, in 
cases of severe wounds the veterinarian should be called. 
The use of such irritants as acids, turpentine, salt, etc., 
serve no useful purpose on a fresh wound when compared 
with the pain caused, such materials really tend to hinder 
and thus prevent rapid healing, their use is also liable 
to result in permanent scars or blemishes. 

Another class of wounds to deal with are those known 
as fractures (breaks), they occur in hard structures, such 
as bone, differing from those already spoken of, which are 
of soft tissues. 



The Common Farm Operations. 189 

Fractures require expert dressing and the application 
of bandages and splints in the larger animals; in calves, 
lambs, pigs and poultry the stockman can with little 
trouble bind up the broken part and save loss. Frac- 
tures (breaks) are of various kinds and vary greatly in 
their seriousness; generally speaking, if the ends of the 
bones extend through the skin, the case is not worth 
bothering with. Fractures may be straight across a bone, 
on the slant (obliquely), or lengthwise; if the bone is 
broken, without external wound, it is termed a simple 
fracture; if the broken ends do communicate with an ex- 
ternal wound we have the compound fracture; if the bone 
is broken in small pieces the fracture is known as com- 
minuted; greenstick fractures occur in young animals, 
and resemble the break in a green stick, not a clean, 
sharp break, hence the term. 

Union of fractures (broken bones) takes place some- 
what as follows: During the first three days inflamma- 
tion and exudation is going on, from then to the twelfth 
day soft material is thrown out around the broken ends, 
and if the bone is hollow also in the hollow space; by the 
end of a month if the ends have not been disturbed the 
soft material mentioned is changed into bone (being 
known as the provisional callus), following this stage, 
material forms between the broken ends, being later con- 
verted into bone, which process takes about two months, 
thus completely uniting the broken parts; this material 
forms what is known as the definitive callus; if occasional 
movement of the ends occur during this stage, complete 
union is not possible, and in such cases the material 
thrown out instead of becoming bone takes on a gristly 



190 Veterinary Elements. 

formation. The absorption of more or less of the excess 
of callus follows, usually taking several months or longer 
to be performed, before this occurs the point of union is 
shown by an enlargement. Briefly the treatment of frac- 
tures consists in bringing the broken parts together, se- 
curing them in that position by splints and bandages, 
usually left on six to seven weeks, drainage and antisep- 
tic treatment of the fracture, if a compound one, entire 
rest of the patient for at least three months, in a well- 
bedded (short material, such as cut straw, shavings, saw- 
dust, being used) box, give good, nutritious, laxative food 
and plenty of green meat if available. Fractures may 
be detected by the presence of sudden, severe lameness, 
deformity of the part, which can be moved in unnatural 
directions, great pain, fever, and the grating (crepitus) 
of the ends of the bones together. Fracture of the tibia 
(bone of the lower thigh) sometimes occurs without dis- 
placement, being held in place by the strong periosteum. 
Fractures in old horses are always dangerous, in younger 
horses there is possibility of repair, if given proper treat- 
ment and nursing; fractures of the hind legs are more 
serious than those of the fore ones, in the former if above 
the hock, unless in very young animals, are usually not 
worth treating. Surgical operations are better avoided 
if possible during fly time or ir animals far advanced in 
pregnancy. 

Dehorning is a surgical operation usually performed 
on cattle, by which they are rendered more tame, and 
consequently more easily handled. My experience is 
that if properly done bad results are very few; cattle 
will often go right to eating; some cows will not even 



The Common Farm Operations. 



191 



show any appreciable shrinkage in their milk; for the 
control of bulls this operation is indispensable. The 
operation is best performed during cool weather, so as 
to avoid flies, during the period from October until 
April; best results are obtained in yearling and two-year- 
old cattle. The instruments in general use are the clip- 
pers or saw; I pre- 
fer the former as being- 
handier, calling for 
less restraint of the 
animal, and if kept in 
good shape, well-oiled 
and sharp, do just as 
good work, only in a 
great deal less time. 
Bleeding from the op- 
eration is rarely ser- 
ious; in heavy milking 
cows it may sometimes 
need attention. 



dehorning; clippers and bulldog forceps. 



Smear the hair at the base of the horn with vaseline 
and turn it back, then secure the animal to a strong post 
by means of a chain or rope, so that it can be quickly 
released; a stanchion might be used; insert the bulldog 
(a nose forcep) into the nose and draw the head around 
to the flank, the operator then applies the clipper over 




192 



Veterinary Elements. 



the exposed horn, and brings it as close to the head as 
possible, the object being to remove about one-fourth 
inch of the skin along with the horn, thus destroying the 
horn matrix and preventing the growth of unsightly 
stubs. To make a nice-looking head be careful to so 
apply the clippers that the cut will slope inwards from 
the bottom of the horn base, thus a pointed poll, re- 
sembling that of the Angus, will result. As soon as 
the horns are removed pieces of cotton batting about one 
to one and one-half inches square dipped in boracic acid 
(a powder) are placed right over the wound, the hair is 
then drawn over the batting and fine string (parcel) tied 
around the poll, thus holding the batting in place. 
Calves may be dehorned by caustics, of which several 
varieties are on the market; a cheaper method, just as 
good, is to buy caustic potash in the stick form at the 
drug store. It will be necessary to wrap cloth about it 
when using or the fingers will also be cauterized, it is 
applied around the base of the horns, just where they 
join the skin. 




THE TROCAR AXD CAKl'LA AND Bl'LLPUNCH. 

Tapping the first stomach or paunch is performed in 
cattle and sheep when badly bloated, the instrument 



The Common Farm Operations. 193 

used being known as the trocar, a pointed rod, and the 
cannla, a hollow tube; it can also be used for ringing 
bulls. The operation is performed in the upper left flank 
at a point equidistant from the point of the hip, the last 
rib and the bones of the loin, the instrument being ap- 
plied to the point described, is given a sharp tap and 
pushed in its full length, the trocar withdrawn, the gas 
then rushes out of the cannla, which may be left in for 
five or ten minutes. The paunch is the organ tapped in 
cattle and sheep; the tapping of horses should be left to 
the veterinarian. Rumenotomy is an extension of this 
operation for the removal of food in cases of impacted 
rumen; the operation which is done, consists of the 
opening and removal of its contents and sewing up by 
the veterinarian, it should not be left to the eleventh 
hour. Good results follow when performed early and 
with antiseptic precautions. 

Simple wounds of teats may be treated antiseptically, 
and the use of strips of adhesive plaster to draw the 
wound edges together. 

Castration is usually performed on colts, at a year old; if 
light in the neck and forequarters may be left until two 
years. The operation is done either in the standing or lying 
position; the first is hazardous and requires an agile and 
expert man, the disadvantages being that one cannot see 
what is being done, and if ruptures etc., are present one 
is not in a position to overcome them ; if lying down the 
colt is thrown and secured as described (p. 182.), a clean 
grassy spot being preferable. This operation should not 
be performed unless the colt is m good health, and the 
18 



194 



Veterinary Elements. 



first results are better if a run at grass for a few days has 
first been obtained. The instruments needed are the emas- 
culator and a castrating knife, which should be placed in 
an antiseptic solution ten minutes 
before operating, the hands and 




UMASCl'LATOi:. 



arms being also cleansed with 
the same material, it is also good 
practice to examine the parts 
or ruptures, etc. 

The essentials to success in castration are: thorough 
cleanliness, got by the plentiful use of antiseptics, good health 
at the time of operation, and exercise afterwards. 
The scrotum is seized between the finger and thumb, so 
as to tighten the skin over it, and a good incision (four 
inches or thereabouts) made over the testicle, right 
through the coverings of the testicle, which will then 
pop out. The emasculator is applied well up on the 
cord, the rough edge to the body, and the testicle 
removed, the operation being repeated similarly on the 
other testicle. Some of the antiseptic may be poured 
into the wounds, the colt let up and stabled for eight to 
ten hours, when it should be turned out with the others, 



The Common Farm Operations. 195 

if a mature horse, hitch and give a short drive or slow 
work; if cold rains occur the colt must be stabled. The 
wounds should be examined occasionally in order to see 
that they are kept open, thus insuring good drainage 
away of any pus. It should be remembered that the tes- 
ticles of colts may not descend until twelve months old, 
sometimes as late as two years old. 

Bulls are castrated standing, the head being tied up 
solidly to a strong post, an attendant at each side stead- 
ies him, the operator stands squarely behind the bull, 
seizes the scrotum, gives it a half turn round and draws 
it out between the hind legs, the incision is made from 
nearly the top to the bottom of the sac, the testicle drawn 
out and removed with the emasculator or the cord is 
scraped slowly with the knife until severed; the remain- 
ing testicle being removed similarly. Calves are thrown 
down, the end of the scrotum cut off, the testicles drawn 
out until the cord breaks or is scraped as before. Lambs 
are castrated in a similar way, being held as described 
for small pigs, the knife or docking shears may be used 
for taking off the piece of the scrotum, which may be 
left any length desired. 

Rams are castrated similarly to bulls, or by turning. 
[''With the ram, you have him turned upon his haunches, 
clip the wool off the scrotum to get it out of the way. 
Have some one hold the ram and hold the hind feet up 
pretty close to the body, unless you wish to go to the 
trouble of tying. Take the end of the scrotum in one 
hand and with the other press the testicles well up into 
the body so as to tear them loose from the end of the 
pouch, you can usually feel them give way, now bring 



196 Veterinary Elements. 

them down and taking them one at a time invert them 
and revolve theni three times around the cord or until 
it is twisted tight. This you will find is not the easiest 
job until you get on to it. You can tell when the cord 
is twisted tight by passing the finger along and feeling 
the spiral condition and the hardness. When you get 
one twisted let it draw up into the socket so it will not 
turn back right end up, while you operate on the other 
one. Having them both done tie the sac close up with 
a soft cord. Tie tight enough to prevent them coming 
down and turning back. Cut the strings off after 24 to 
36 hours." — Curtiss and Edgerton, Iowa Agricultural 
College.] In this method germ infection, so much 
dreaded in rams, is avoided. Another method lauded 
by some, and which has been tried at the Station (W. 
E. S. ) is to tie a strong cord around the sac or cod as 
close to the body and as tight as possible, three days 
later the sac and stones are cut away about an inch below 
the cord and an antiseptic applied to the cut end. 

Caponizing is the operation performed in removing 
the testes of poultry. 

Spaying or castration of females may be performed in 
the sow, bitch and cow, rarely in the mare unless a bad 
(vicious) actor (e. g., switcher and kicker) in harness, 
the surgeon should be called to operate on mares, and 
unless the stockman is expert on the heifers also. Fe- 
males thus operated on fatten more readily and are not 
subject to the periods of heat; if a sow it is placed on its 
right side and secured, the upper hind leg being- 
stretched backwards, an incision is made vertically just 
below the region of the loin, the hand passed in up 



The Common Farm Operations. 197 

towards the back and the ovary felt for, when found is 
drawn towards the opening, thus drawing the horn of the 
uterus also, rendering the other ovary easy to get in 
young sows, both ovaries are drawn out and snipped off 
at once, if old sows only one is exposed at a time and its 
ovary removed. The operation may be performed on 
the cow or heifer in the standing position, the incision 
being made through the upper left flank at the spot 
selected for tapping a cow, a strong scantling being slung 
parallel to the cow at a level a little above the knee and 
hocks, the head should be fastened securely and the bull- 
dog may be inserted in the nose. The incision is made 
with a knife through the skin, the operator can with his 
fingers secure the ovaries which are snipped off by the 
spaying scissors, and then brought out. The incision 
should be just large enough to admit the hand, a stitch 
or two through the skin, muscles and peritoneum draws 
the wound together, tar being applied over all. The 
animal should be starved for thirty-six hours before the 
operation and should only get light sloppy feed or grass 
afterwards for a few days. 

Ruptures may occur in pigs and lambs, if shown after 
castration cleanse the bowels with tepid water containing 
some mild antiseptic, return them, to do which it may be 
necessary to stand the animal head downwards, and also 
to introduce the finger into the rectum, when returned 
sew up the opening as close to the body as possible, keep 
quiet and give but little food. The navel rupture (um- 
bilical hernia is the technical term) is often seen in foals, 
and quite frequently disappears by the time the animal is 
a year old; previous to that time the enlargement may be 



198 Veterinary Elements. 

blistered, some cases recovering from that treatment; if, 
however, it persists beyond the age stated a good surgeon 
should be employed. 

Entires and geldings are sometimes ruptured in the 
region of the groin (inguinal hernia), and the rupture 
may even extend down into the scrotum in any male en- 
tire, constituting what is known as scrotal hernia, in the 
latter case the skilled surgeon's help is needed; the for- 
mer trouble (inguinal hernia) is often the cause of severe 
colicky symptoms in stallions, which, if not relieved, be- 
comes fatal; the symptoms are as follows: Suddenness 
of attack, colicky pains growing more intense all the 
time, arching the back, lying on the ground or sitting 
up like a dog, pawing the ground, sweating heavily; the 
cord (spermatic) will be thickened and the scrotum feel 
cold to the touch, in such cases give a large dose of lau- 
danum, three ounces in half a pint of raw linseed oil, if 
possible throw and turn the animal on its back, and after 
oiling the hand introduce it into the rectum, and by gen- 
tle traction inside and working outside the bowel maybe 
returned. 

Scirrhus cord is a disease of the cord (spermatic), the 
result of fungus invasion following castration; my expe- 
rience has been that all the cases seen had been operated 
on with clamps; if the cord becomes imprisoned between 
the lips of the wound made at castration this condition 
may result, hence the necessity for examination of the 
parts a few days after castration, the wound should then 
be bathed with a warm antiseptic solution, the operator' s 
fingers being clean, and if the cord is in view, as de- 
scribed, it should be pushed up into the scrotum. The 



The Common Farm Operations. 199 

symptoms of this enlargement (so much that people say 
the animal was not castrated) of the cord are, discharge 
of pus for months after the operation, straddling gait, 
some stiffness of the hind quarters and even loss of flesh; 
for this condition give Iodide of Potash, one to three 
drams daily, according to the age of the animal; if that 
does not cure after two to three weeks of the drug, the 
surgeon's aid will need to be invoked. 

Bleeding of Animals has gone out of fashion the result 
of the swing of the pendulum from the other extreme; 
it has, however, its advantages, and at such times is very 
beneficial, especially in such cases as founder (laminitis), 
congestion of the lungs and brain troubles; it should 
never be performed during such sickness as colt dis- 
temper (strangles), influenza (pink eye) or other weak- 
ening diseases. When done the blood should be taken 
from the jugular; bleeding from the feet should not be 
allowed as germ infection, resulting in lockjaw, etc., is 
liable to occur. The near side is the most convenient on 
which to operate, the animal should have been blind- 
folded previously, and the head raised enough to smooth 
out the skin of the neck; the incision with the fleam is 
usually made down the neck about ten to twelve inches 
from the angle of the jaw, the fleam being sharp and 
clean so as to make a good-sized cut, rapid bleeding being 
the most beneficial. Eaise the vein, by applying pres- 
sure over it below the point of operation, either with 
the thumb or a fine cord drawn tight around the neck. 
Dampen the hair over the spot to be incised; place the 
fleam blade parallel to the vein, running in the same 
direction that is; tap the back of the fleam firmly and 



200 



Veterinary Elements. 



the blood will flow out; it should be collected in a pail 
so that the amount removed may be known; on an aver- 
age three to four quarts are sufficient to take away; 
the pulse will also be a guide as to the quantity to be 
taken; enough blood having been taken, a pin is run 
through the edge of the wound, a horse hair or piece of 

fine twine being 
wound around it in 
the form of a figure 
eight; the pin can 
be pulled out in a 
few days. 

Docking consists 
of the removal of 
a portion of an 
animal's tail; it 
should only be per- 
formed for sanitary 
reasons, as in sheep, 
especially ewes; or 
to overcome a dan- 
gerous habit in 
horses, such as seiz- 

DETEKMINING THE AGE. (SEE P. 36 AND 37. ) ing the rdnS With 

the tail, in which case nicking, cutting of the muscles 
which lie under the tail and whose action is to draw that 
member down, might be preferable; the surgeon should 
be the one to decide and operate in horses; in many 
States the operation, unless a surgical need, is illegal, 
and rightly so. The stockman will have to dock his 
a sheep, which is done when they are lambs, either with 




The Common Farm Operations. 201 

a sharp knife, or the red hot docking shears. To do the 
job well one man holds the lamb as already described; 
that is holding a hind and fore foot in each hand, its 
head and back being pressed firmly against the holder's 
body, keeping the lamb in a position so that its buttock 
inclines out toward the operator, who will, if operating 
with the knife, feel for the joint, which found will be 
cut through with one clean cut, the lamb being at once 
released, the tail should be left quite short, in fact about 
level with the outer end of the skin that comes out from 
near the tail-head to join that organ; if with the forceps 
(Wing's) they are heated to a dull red heat, an assistant 
holds the tail out straight and the forceps are applied 
and slowly pinch off the tail; effort should be made to 
let the forceps lean over a little so as to sear the artery, 
which is on the center line of the under surface (in the 
position in which the lamb is held, of course being the 
upper side) of the tail. The lambs operated upon with 
the knife should be carefully watched at intervals to avoid 
their death from bleeding, if bleeding is excessive the 
artery should be caught with a small pair of forceps and 
given a few turns, or a hot iron be applied. Docking is 
best done when the lambs are three weeks or a month 
old; the operation of castration following a week or ten 
days later. 



CHAPTEE XVII. 
DISEASES DUE TO MISTAKES IN FEEDING. 

The observant stockman has probably noticed that the 
veterinarian's cases are largely the result of mistakes in 
feeding animals by their owners, he will have noticed 
that diseases seen on the farm, such as colic, stoppage of 
the bowels, indigestion, shown by scouring, milk fever, 
etc., are more common than all other diseases affecting 
farm stock, unless we except the contagious diseases 
hog cholera and contagious abortion; such being the 
case a few of the most common will be described: 

Colic is worthy of being classed with the poor, by some 
farmers, as it is always with them, and while of such 
common occurrence, none the less serious; usually of 
short duration it is not thought much of by the average 
owner, yet we find that the colics of long duration are 
often quite dangerous, and also those that recur inevitably 
end in the death of the patient, therefore all the more 
responsibility is thrown on the feeder, when it is con- 
sidered that colics are due to mistakes in feeding. We 
generally speak of two kinds of colic, the spasmodic or 
cramp colic, and the wind or flatulent colic, for all 
practical purposes we may, and shall here consider them 
as shown by similar symptoms, with this exception that 
in wind colic a bloated condition exists, due to the forma- 
tion of gas in the intestines. A horse affected with 
either of the colics will be uneasy, may paw the bedding 



Diseases Due to Mistakes in Feeding. 203 

or ground, arches the back, looks around to the flank, 
and attempts to lie down, kicks at the belly and rolls on 
the ground, seems to improve and will go to eating and 
remain that way for a short time when the spasms again 
affect him and the symptoms are repeated as before; it 
might be mentioned that the quiet spells are not shown 
as plainly in wind colics, in which disease the pains are 
more continuous and the breathing hastened and difficult, 
due to the pressure of the distended bowels on the 
diaphragm, which pressure affects the lungs, limiting the 
area for those organs to do their work. Rubbing the 
belly seems to afford relief; colics often recover without 
treatment; it should be remembered that colic, strictly 
speaking, is not a disease, but a symptom of pain in the 
intestines. The pulse is usually full and frequent; there 
may be patches of perspiration on the body. Unfavor- 
able symptoms are cold, wet, clammy condition of the 
body, high temperature, haggard expression of the face, 
frequent, hard small pulse, together with difficult breath- 
ing; if the animal passes urine it may be considered, a 
favorable symptom, as showing the spasms have relaxed 
must have done so to release the sphincter muscle at the 
neck of the bladder; in this connection it may be stated 
that horses are seldom affected with urinary troubles, al- 
though the above symptom often misleads people, who 
say: "the horse has something the matter with its 
water, ' ' when such is not the case. 

Treatment should be immediate, one of the following 
prescriptions may be used: 



204 Veterinary Elements. 

A Laudanum 2 ounces. 

Turpentine 2 ounces. 

Linseed oil \h pints. 

B Chloric Ether 1 ounce. 

Indian Hemp Extract i ounce. 

Water 1 pint. 

Or we may substitute Sweet Spirits of iRitre for the tur- 
pentine; either prescription may be given as a drench 
for colic. Do not repeat prescription A; if the animal 
is not relieved B may be given an hour and a half or two 
hours later, and if the animal's condition is not improved 
at the time of giving the second drench, do not neglect 
to call your veterinarian (a graduate of course). Injec- 




tions of warm water — about two quarts — may be given 
at two hour intervals, the stall should be kept well bed- 
ded, and the animal prevented from throwing itself 
violently, while in some cases walking exercise might 
be useful; do not distress the patient by galloping. 

Bloating in sheep and cattle, sometimes termed hoven, 
tympanites, is common where green corn and rape are 
fed, it may be due to choking, the presence of some 



Diseases Due to Mistakes in Feeding. 205 

foreign body in the paunch (rumen), or if chronic to 
tuberculosis. 

The most prominent symptom is the bloating of the 
animal, especially noticed on the left side between the 
last rib and point of the hip; if pressure with the finger 
is made the impress is at once lost as soon as the finger 
is removed; in impaction of the paunch the impress is 
not removed at once, hence this symptom aids in distingu- 
ishing one disease from the other; the breathing is dif- 
ficult as might be expected from the pressure on the 
diaphragm; there is also moaning and slavering from the 
mouth. 

The treatment is first to tap (see farm operations) with 
the trocar and canula and thus draw off the gas, then fol- 
low with one of the following drenches: 

Turpentine 2 ounces, 

Linseed Oil H pints, 

or, 

Spirits Ammonia ] to U ounces, 

Linseed Oil H pints, 

to be followed in a few hours with the usual cattle purge 
and sloppy diet, sheep will only need one-fourth of the 
above doses; if much pain is present one to two ounces of 
laudanum may be added to either prescription. 

Eemember the injunction with respect to drenching 
sheep or cattle: ''Drench slowly and carefully and let 
the head down at once if the animal tries to cough." To 
avoid this trouble (bloating) do not pasture cattle or 
sheep on clover or rape when immature (then in a very 
watery condition) nor when there is a dew or rain drops 
lying upon it, wait until dry and then turn the stock on 



206 Veterinary Elements. 

with some food in them, never in a hungry condition. 
The latter precaution is always well to observe and it is 
also a good method when first putting stock on the feeds 
mentioned to leave on for a short time, one-half to two 
hours only, neglect of these precautions means certain 
loss. 

Distension of the paunch also occurs in sheep and 
cattle due to getting an overfeed, say from getting loose 
at grain either in the barn or the field, dry fodder and 
no succulent feed (such as roots or silage) from stoppage 
of the bowel movement. The symptoms are similar to 
those shown in bloating, only that the swelling pits on 
pressure (on the left side) and tapping with the fingers 
does not give the drum-like sound as heard in the pre- 
ceding disease; chewing the cud (rumination) stops and 
the animal is said to have lost its cud, here again we 
have a symptom mistaken for a disease, if digestion is 
going on properly the cud so-called will be present, so 
that the loss of the cud as termed by many people, is a 
symptom of digestive trouble and needs investigation as 
to the cause, not the giving of a so-called cud, of pork, 
greased rags or unwholesome materials; if this condition 
has existed for a day or so, no feces (dung) will be seen 
to pass. 

The treatment calls for a smart purge, followed by 
stimulants, and injections and if all these fail to relieve 
an operation by the surgeon, who should be called for 
such a purpose not later than two days from the onset of 
the trouble. 

Choking in cattle is usually due to the attempt to swal- 
low whole potatoes, pieces of turnip, old shoes, etc. ; in 



Diseases Due to Mistakes in Feeding. 207 

horses from bolting the feed such as whole oats or from 
hard physic balls, pieces of roots, pressure by the collar, 
or the formation of abscesses in colt distemper (stran- 
gles). In cattle the flow of saliva from the mouth, at- 
tempts to cough, bloating and the presence of the obstruc- 
tion somewhere along the course of the gullet indicate 
the trouble; in horses the nose is poked out, the neck is 
stiff, if attempts to drink are made the fluid is discharged 
through the nostrils, slavering, anxious expression, diffi- 
cult breathing, the horse may drop to the ground, and 
the presence of the obstruction. 

The treatment in cattle is comparatively simple and 
successful; the bloating is first relieved by tapping, an 
oiled probang or piece of twisted rope is passed down the 
gullet and endeavor made to push the obstacle on down, 
a little oil poured down occasionally, or before the use 
of the probang, is also useful, an assistant may also 
gently try to work the obstruction downward if seen; do 
not use a whipstock unless very flexible or a torn gullet 
and death may result. 

In horses small doses of oil and water may be given, 
providing the animals are given the head free so as to 
avoid the material going the wrong way; if from the 
collar remove and use one of the proper size and fit; the 
veterinarian is almost indispensible in cases occurring in 
horses, as chloroform may have to be given and an oper- 
ation performed. 

Founder (laminitis) is included under diseases due to 
errors in feeding, although it frequently occurs from 
driving on hard dry roads, excessive purging, sudden 
checking of sweating by giving very cold water when 



208 Veterinary Elements. 

heated; bard work when not in condition, or it may fol- 
low foaling or lung troubles, and occasionally from stand- 
ing too much on a limb in order to save another which 
may be injured. Excessive feeding for the showring or 
block, etc., with lack of exercise; wheat especially when 
green, or breaking loose and getting at grain in the bin 
are other common causes. This disease may appear in 
cattle and sheep, although the pain shown will not be as 
acute as in horses. The symptoms of laminitis are so 
well marked that once seen they are never forgotten, a 
horse affected will stand immovable in a stall with his 
fore feet away in front of him, his weight being thrown 
on the heels, if the hind feet are affected they and the 
fore feet are placed well under the body, the animal if 
made to move rocks on its limbs and will jump with both 
fore feet together, the pulse is hurried, throbbing of the 
arteries below the fetlocks can be felt, if an attempt to 
lift a foot is made the animal resists, the feet are hot and 
tender, especially if tapped with a hammer, the breath- 
ing is hurried, giving rise to the suspicion that the lungs 
are affected, the pnlse is full and hard, and the mem- 
brane of the eye reddened (congested). Sweating will 
be seen as a result of the extreme pain and thirst will be 
great, the thermometer will show an increased body tem- 
perature. The treatment needs to be energetic as unless 
so destructive changes will take place resulting in drop- 
ping of the sole, due to the pedal bone turning point down- 
wards, pumice foot and possibly shedding of the entire 
hoof. Irregular rings around the foot, close together 
are evidences of an attack at some time, as is also the 
tendency of a horse to travel on its heels when trotted. 



Diseases Due to Mistakes In Feeding. 209 

Bleeding- is very useful in such cases, either from the 
jugular, or from the coronet, never from the toe, there is 
too much danger of germ infection; tub the feet in warm 
water or apply hot poultices for a few times. Purgatives 
such as aloes should not be given, a quart of linseed oil 
will be useful and safe to use, in these cases if bleeding 
is not performed aconite may be used with care, follow- 
ing its use with saltpetre (nitrate of potash) in ounce 
doses, twice daily in the drinking water, until the fever 
subsides. Bran mashes or other light food is to be pre- 
ferred, some veterinarians remove the shoes, which is 
not always easy unless the animal is made to lie down, 
which should be done if it persists in standing. Do not 
pare through the sole, but as soon as the worst symptoms 
are over, in three or four days, give moderate exercise, 
being guided, of course, by the veterinarian if one is 
employed, which is advisable in a horse of any value, as 
he will know how to prevent the serious after troubles 
already mentioned. Many horses are spoilt for city 
work by this disease, unless some of the various rubber 
pads are used; a run at pasture, a moist one preferable, 
after blistering the coronets is a great help to restore the 
foundered animal to usefulness. This disease in sheep 
or cattle will be more common during the summer if 
high feeding, without taking into consideration the tem- 
perature, or putting on full feed too suddenly is persisted 
in, more is to be gained by prevention than by cure, if 
such animals are affected doses of glauber salts are to 
be given occasionally, the doses being the same as of 
epsom salts. 
It 



210 Veterinary Elements. 

Lymphangitis, big leg, weed, or water-farcy (not a good 
term, apt to be mistaken for farcy), is another serious 
trouble due to errors in feeding, the lymph channels and 
nodes are inflamed, consequently their working is more 
or less hindered. Over-feeding, lack of exercise or sud- 
den change to large quantities of a new food, etc. It 
might be considered as a disease in which the lymph has 
stagnated (stopped moving) in the lymph vessels, these 
vessels it will be remembered acting especially as car- 
riers of waste material from various parts, hence this 
stagnated material acts as a foreign object with the result 
— inflammation of the organs affected. 

There is excessive swelling of one or more limbs, often - 
est a hind one, the swelling extending from top to bot- 
tom of the limb, which is hot and painful to the touch, 
running the hand down the inside of the limb the lymph 
nodes are felt, the temperature is up above normal, great 
lameness, rapid breathing, hard full pulse, the lymphat- 
ics are seen to be enlarged; owing to the cause, lack of 
exercise, it is oftenest seen on Monday morning, hence it 
has been termed Monday morning fever. Attention to 
the diet, bran mashes every Saturday night containing 
a tablespoon ful of saltpetre will almost certainly prevent 
the disease. A horse once attacked is liable to have the 
trouble recur and as a consequence a chronic enlarge- 
ment and thickening of the limb (elephantiasis). This 
disease must not be confounded with ordinary stocking 
up of the limbs which is painless; or with the local form 
of glanders, termed farcy, a very dangerous disease, both 
to man and animal to have anything to do with. 



Diseases Due to Mistakes in Feeding. 211 

The treatment should be directed towards the cause 
and its effect, therefore limit the feed, give a purgative, 
aloes preferably, to remove the accumulated waste pro- 
ducts which have in the form of lymph escaped more or 
less into the tissues, and if left there may coagulate and 
thus give the chronic thickening so often a result of this 
disease. Bathe the limb with warm water, thus reliev- 
ing the tension and pain, better not to bleed; hand rub 
and bandage the limb when the inflammation is subsid- 
ing, and if the swelling is slow to depart, the use of 
iodides under the veterinarian's direction will often prove 
satisfactory. It is a good plan to suspect farcy in cases 
where the hind limbs swell, especially if the animal has 
been properly fed. 

Azoturia is the oftentimes fatal result of good feed and 
lack of exercise, probably most common in the spring- 
time, in farmers' horses; in cities appearing after a day 
or so enforced rest, due to holidays or storms; it is far 
more serious in city horses than country ones, owing to 
the fact of the steady, heavy feeding of grain and heavy 
work the town animal is subjected to. Percherons and 
their grades are said to be more liable than other breeds, 
due probably to their easier keeping qualities; in some 
cases exposure to cold may have caused the disease % The 
name azoturia, meaning an abnormal amount of nitroge- 
nous matter in the urine, is rather misleading, as such a 
condition is not present at the beginning of this disease, 
what does occur is an increase in the number of red 
blood corpuscles, sometimes being present in twice the 
natural (normal) quantity, which are destroyed, thrown 
into the blood, and act as a poison ; whatever theterm used 



212 "Veterinary Elements. 

the disease shows such symptons as dark coffee- colored 
urine, excitement, spasms of the muscles of the croup, 
the driver often thinks that a limb is broken or the ani- 
mal's back is sprained. The horse will leave the stable 
all right, in fact livelier than usual, a short time later 
perspires freely, gets lame on one leg seemingly unable 
to put weight on it, the muscles of the loin and croup 
swell and get hard, breathing is hurried, and eventually 
the animal goes down and is unable to rise on its hind 
quarters, hence the non-professional speaks of this dis- 
ease as "spinal disease, 7 ' paralysis, etc. The preven- 
tive treatment already mentioned for big leg should be 
adopted for all heavy horses and rotund roadsters, espe- 
cially those easy keepers. Once the disease has made its 
appearance energetic treatment is necessary, place in a 
well-bedded box, give a purgative, poultice or bathe the 
loins with hot water, a liniment may be applied after- 
wards, blanket so as to encourage sweating, empty the 
bowels and draw off the urine, turn frequently on its 
bed; give plenty of water to drink, and in a few days 
try and get the horse on its feet, slings may be useful in 
such cases. A noted German veterinarian recommends 
the use of one to one and one-half pounds of baking soda 
daily. The main treatment should be early left to the 
professional, the stockman devoting himself to get the 
patient into the best possible place for treatment and 
nursing; as a result of this disease wasting of the muscles 
(atrophy) of the loins and croup may result, in such 
cases months of rest out at pasture and an occasional 
blister will be needed to entirely restore the parts to their 
natural condition. 



Diseases Due to Mistakes in Feeding. 213 

Heaves, or broken wind, is a chronic condition in which 
there is difficulty of breathing, the act of expelling air 
from the lungs taking longer than the act of breathing in 
air, it is due originally to mistakes in feeding, and an ani- 
mal badly effected is rendered almost incapable of work. 

The difficulty of breathing in this disease is due to a 
dilated condition of the lungs, owing to excess of air in 
the air sacs or in the tissue that surrounds the lobules, 
as a result the lungs are prevented from expelling all the 
air they should, hence less is taken in than would be if 
they were in a natural condition. The air cells may be 
broken into one another as a result of the violent cough- 
ing, whereas in the other form the air seems to enter the 
tissue during the intake of air into the lungs, in which 
case some degeneration has in all probability taken place 
in the lung tissue. A full stomach and bowels interfere 
greatly with the action of the lungs, and when filled out 
with food it is not surprising that this trouble occurs. At 
the commencement of the disease there is a spasmodic 
cough, later a suppressed short weak cough, with a double 
expiration, and the passage of wind by the anus. In ordi- 
nary breathing no aid is needed to expel the air, the 
natural elasticity of the lung performs the work, in this 
disease the muscles of the abdomen are used, as is noticed 
by the heaving of the flanks. 

While the causes of the previous troubles have been 
overloading the system, the cause of this trouble is more 
mechanical in its nature and may, owing to the feed that 
causes it, be a disease of the poor feeder' s horse, founder, 
big leg, etc., being diseases of the horse belonging to the 
heavy feeder. The custom existing among so many far- 



214 Veterinary Elements. 

mers of continually filling a horse's manger with hay, 
even having them littered with it, is one of the great 
causes of this disease, especially is this so when the hay 
is of poor quality, hard and innutritious, the horse being 
given an extra quantity to make up for the deficient 
quality. Hard chopped straw, overripe rye grass, are all 
liable to cause this incurable disease being irritating in 
their effect on the stomach wall and delicate filaments of 
the tenth nerve, [the nerve which controls the lung move- 
ment, thus the relation of feeding to this disease is at 
once more readily seen and understood. 

Heredity may also be said to have an influence on the 
frequency with which this trouble shows in a breeding- 
stud. Although treatment is only palliative it should 
none the less be adopted, such as feeding roots and grass, 
or some soiling crop in place of dry hay. Limit the feed 
and water, and let what is given be of the best quality, 
clean oats and hay free from dust, sprinkle the hay with 
water before feeding; in France the hay is dampened 
with molasses and water with good results. The feeding 
of boiled flax seed or four to six ounces of linseed oil daily 
are very useful and serve to keep the bowels and skin in 
good order. Clover hay is very unsuitable, clean, bright 
timothy is preferable; in mild cases improvement is fre- 
quently noticed when horses are taken from the East to 
the Western prairies. It is thought that the hard and 
irritating nature of the prohibited feeds affects the nerves 
connected with the stomach and lungs. The following is 
a useful powder: 



Diseases Due to Mistakes in Feeding. 215 

Arsenic 2 drams. 

Copperas 1] ounces. 

Xux vomica, powdered 2 ounces. 

Sugar 4 ounces. 

Mix and make into twenty -four powders, one of which 
may be given twice daily. Horse traders often try to 
hide the disease by giving a large quantity of lard in the 
form of balls, or a quantity of shot, either of these acting 
for a few hours. 

Water trouble in rams and wethers, especially those 
being highly fed for show, is due to the formation of little 
stones (calculi) in the bladder or urethra. Many expe- 
rienced shepherds claim it is due to feeding mangolds 
and sugar beets or drinking hard water; there are doubt- 
less other foods also dangerous if an animal is fed heavily 
on them and its exercise limited. 

Treatment is of little avail as a rule, saw palmetto may 
be tried in two dram doses, or sweet nitre in the proper 
amount. t The drinking water, once or twice a week, of 
such animals should contain some saltpetre, one to two 
teaspoonfuls to each ram or wether, or boric acid in the 
same quantity may be used. Sometimes the stone may 
be found in the worm at the end of the penis, as soon as 
removed the urine passes and the animal is relieved. 
The symptoms are humping of the back, kicking at the 
belly, stretching out of the hind feet as if to pass urine, 
stamping, uneasiness, gritting of the teeth, an increased 
tendency to lie down, stops eating, and often a costive 
condition of the bowels; death occurs from the severe in- 
flammation set up or from bursting of the bladder. 



216 Veterinary Elements. 

Fat wethers and rams are often affected with soreness 

of the end of their sheaths, due to continual lying down 
and the trickling of urine therefrom when in that posi- 
tion; an unhealthy looking sore is found underneath the 
moist scab; as the soreness may prevent their trying to 
pass urine it might aid in causing the previous trouble; 
the application of iodoform one part to boracic acid three 
parts after the removal of the scab will soon overcome 
the trouble; examination should be made frequently, how- 
ever, and treatment given if necessary. 



CHAPTER XVIII. 

DISEASES OP THE TEETH. 

The stockman is seldom worried with tooth trouble in 
sheep, cattle and pigs, and unless well informed is apt to 
think horses are just as free, such, however, is not the 
case. The slightest irregularity of the teeth will inter- 
fere more or less with chewing and masticating the food, 
quite readily understood if a person is familiar with the 
arrangement of the teeth. No horse is exempt, from 
■colthood to old age the teeth are liable to need attention. 
There are general symptoms, such as unthriftiness, often 
in spite of good and liberal feeding and little work, there 
is dribbling of saliva from the mouth, ends of hay may 
be dropped from the mouth, water is let fall out when 
drinking, the horse may crib or windsuck, the feces may 
contain undigested feed, there may be swelling of the 
jaw, a partial refusal of food, loss of flesh; the animal 
may pull on the bit or refuse to take hold at all, and 
there may be swelling of the gums just behind the upper 
front teeth, if this symptom, not a disease, remember, is 
seen, the word "Lainpas" is uttered and the cause of 
the trouble thought to be located, the swollen gums are 
perhaps torn with nails or burned with hot irons, but 
there is no improvement: to the well informed the cause 
is soon known — it is the teeth. Here the veterinarian 
with the proper instruments is indispensable, the employ- 
ment of a quack, a travelling so-called horse dentist, or 



218 Veterinary Elements. 

the attempt to treat the condition by the owner or groom 
will be unsatisfactory, being cruel and worrying to the 
horse, even to the extent of spoiling his mouth for life. 
Everyone knows that the efforts of the expert human 
dentist are directed to preserve the teeth, not to insert 
false ones, even more important is this effort in the horse, 
false teeth in him not being possible or practicable: a 
horse's usefulness, and therefore his life, depends as much 
on his teeth, or more so, than on any organ of the body, 
and while horse buyers only examine the front teeth to 
determine the age, the well-posted person will want to 
know the condition of the grinders, and whether any are 
absent or diseased. The yearly examination of the 
horse's mouth by the veterinarian is one of the most prof- 
itable investments that can be made by a stockman, as 
feed, flesh, and the resulting power to do the work will 
be saved. The period of teething it will be remembered 
(see page 34) extends almost from birth until the horse 
is five years old, consequently the colt is just as liable to 
have tooth troubles as is an old horse; the milk (tempo- 
rary) molars, or crowns as they are termed, are often re- 
tained instead of being shed at the proper time, especially 
during the age of two to four years, the symptoms al- 
ready mentioned are present and the lining of the mouth 
may show a sore surface, the gums even bleeding, as 
oftentimes a crown becomes partially loose and its sharp 
and jagged edge will be pressed upon the gums during 
attempts to feed; the treatment is removal of those crowns, 
the smoothing of any sharp edges, soft feed, and in a few- 
weeks the improvement is almost beyond belief. 



Diseases of the Teeth. 219 

Wolf teeth are evidences of evolution in the horse, 
showing his relation to the tapir and other animals, the 
reasons advanced for their removal, namely, danger to 
the eyes, is not tenable, as the eyes are never directly 
affected by them. They are usually removed as a matter 
of policy, by the veterinarian : they might, if very large, 
interfere with the bit; as the wolf tooth has a fang, it 
should be pulled, not knocked out, if their removal is 
decided upon. In the chapter treating of the construc- 
tion and arrangement of the teeth, the differences in 
width of the upper and lower jaws of horses were com- 
mented upon, and the effect such differences, together 
with the natural slope of the molars (grinders), would 
have upon the process of chewing. The commonest 
trouble that the veterinarian is called upon to treat in 
horse dentistry is the presence of projections of the 
grinders, such projections causing sore mouths, slaver- 
ing, the passage of undigested food in the feces, unthrift- 
iness, sometimes very marked, indigestion, wounds of the 
tongue and lining of the mouth, side pulling on the bit, 
the manger often covered with saliva. 

The treatment is simple, calling as it does for the use 
of the float (dental file) and yet is not simple enough to 
warrant the trusting of this work to the travelling quack 
or the majority of owners, the veterinarian should be 
employed and after the removal of the projections soft 
feed should be given for a few days. The average work 
horse will need this attention once a year. 

Decayed teeth often cause symptoms in horses which 
have in the past been mistaken for Glanders, Nasal Gleet; 
such symptoms as a stinking breath, together with a 



220 Veterinary Elements. 

stinking discharge from one nostril, qnidding of the food, 
pain during chewing, shown by the animal suddenly 
stopping that act often to let some of the food fall from 
the mouth, holding the head to one side when drinking, 
loss of condition and perhaps a swelling of the jaw, or 
fistula of that bone. The only treatment is removal. 

Cribbing and Windsucking are two diseases due to idle- 
ness or the habit may have started in the colt during 
teething; it is a very nasty vice and affects the condition 
of a horse more or less to its detriment. The applica- 
tion of a neckstrap when in the stable and plenty of work 
are so far the most satisfactory measures to adopt. These 
vices are considered as unsoundnesses in horses, there- 
fore in the examination of a horse the edges of the front 
teeth should be looked at to see if those edges are w r orn 
or chipped, the impress of the neckstrap upon the 
hair may sometimes be detected, and the prospective 
buyer will draw conclusions accordingly. 

Discharges from the nostrils are of common occurrence, 
some are quite serious in their import, other not so much 
so; briefly we may class them as follows: 

1. If chronic and no smell, yellowish or greenish in 
color, sticky and from one nostril, often the left, suspect 
glanders. 

2. If chronic and from one nostril, the discharge being 
of a stinking nature, suspect a decayed tooth. 

3. If chronic from both nostrils, white, glossy, flaky, 
not sticky, more abundant during mastication, the dis- 
charge is likely from the guttural pouches. 

4. If chronic, becoming of the nature of pus, and 
stinking, a catarrh, the bones of the head being affected. 



Diseases of the Teeth. 221 

Acute discharges are seen in common colds, inflamma- 
tion of the larynx, bronchitis, pneumonia and lung gan- 
grene (rotting). 

Black teeth in Pigs are generally removed, although so 
far no data has been produced to prove that they have 
an injurious effect on pigs. In very young pigs at a few 
days old, the tushes should be broken off, thus avoiding 
tearing or soreness of the sow's teats, a result of which 
might be garget and loss of the sow and pigs. 



CHAPTEE XIX. 
FOOT AND LIMB TROUBLES. 

Diseases of the feet and limbs are usually brought to 
the stockman's notice by the presence of lameness in the 
animal affected, therefore we are justified in considering 
lameness a symptom of disease in the parts mentioned, 
it being an expression of pain in one or more limbs dur- 
ing movement. While the lameness may be plain the 
location of that lameness is far from plain, and in many 
cases will perplex even the expert veterinarian; to aid 
us in the detection of the diseases certain symptoms have 
been noticed as accompanying certain conditions; e. g\, if 
the animal is lame in the shoulder, the foot is kept be- 
hind its fellow, the limb and knee relaxed and the toe 
touching the ground, the limb may be said to hang 
loosely and when brought forward it describes an out 
turn; the fore-arm is extended, the knee flexed and the 
foot is on a level or behind its fellow in elbow lameness. 

Lameness may be shown when the foot of the lame leg 
is on the ground, e. g. , in corns, when the foot is off the 
ground stiffness of the knee may be shown although little 
pain is evidenced. It is useful to know that lameness 
may be partially hidden (masked) in a horse by the 
manipulation of the groom, such as exciting him, show- 
ing him on soft ground, by preventing the animal break- 
ing into a trot by holding him tightly by the head and 
by keeping the sound side to the examiner. The lame 



Foot and Limb Troubles. 223 

animal should be examined both in the stable and out- 
side, in the latter case at both the trot and walk so as to 
properly detect the trouble; if the horse is sound he will 
stand squarely on the fore feet, with probably one hind 
foot rested alternately or if very tired a near foot and off 
hind foot will be flexed or vice versa. 

Pointing is often used in connection with lameness, a 
horse is said to point with a fore foot if, when standing- 
he keeps it in advance of its fellow, in which case the 
heel or toe may be raised or the foot placed flat upon the 
ground. 

The novice is often perplexed to know whether the 
lameness is before or behind, according as the animal is 
trotted to or from him, and in this connection it might 
be mentioned that the head and neck constitute the bal- 
ancing pole of the body, in lameness of the fore limb the 
head if free will be raised higher than usual when the 
lame leg, if a front one, comes down on the ground, a 
sharp turn to the right or left will also aid, as the weight 
will be thrown on the forehand; if the lameness is behind 
the head will be lowered when the limb is brought to the 
ground. The slow trot on hard ground with the groom 
a couple of feet from the animal's head, who is made to 
go straight away, will be the best pace at which to 
examine, if lameness in front is suspected have the ani- 
mal trotted towards you, and note the movements of the 
head, the legs and the feet, then note the action from the 
side whether shortened or not, and if the actions of the 
muscles of the limb are understood the variations from 
the natural gait will be more readily understood. Up- 
rightness of a fore pastern is symptomatic of lameness in 



224 Veterinary Elements. 

the foot of that limb, usually if the fore part of the foot is 
affected the heel is raised, e. g., in Founder; if the back 
part is affected as in coffin joint lameness (navicular dis- 
ease) the heel is raised, while if due to bad nail punc- 
ture or fracture, the foot may be lifted entirely from the 
ground; frequent lifting from one forefoot to the other is 
indicative of coffin joint trouble. 

If lameness behind is suspected, let the animal be 
trotted away from you and watch for the limb on which 
the animal dwells and on which he puts his weight, as 
to which is raised the higher, whether a toe is dragged 
or not; then turn to the right about and left about, notic- 
ing whether any reluctance is shown to putting weight 
on a limb. 

The spavin test may be given if hock lameness is sus- 
pected, by flexing the hock tightly, which is performed 
by lifting the limb up close to the body for a few min- 
utes, the foot being let down and the animal trotted off 
smartly, if the lameness is due to spavin, the lameness will 
be more marked after giving the test, the horse sometimes 
going off on the hop. After a drive or warming up of a 
horse the lameness will often disappear, in such cases 
the examination should be deferred until the horse has 
cooled off, when the lameness will usually show very 
plainly. Horses often drive out of the lameness when 
warmed up, that is the lameness disappears, except when 
lame from splints, sore shins, corns, founder or sprains. 
Intermittent lameness, that is the animal goes lame one 
time, sound another, is characteristic of rheumatism or 
navicular trouble. 



Foot and Limb Troubles. 225 

Lameness behind is usually in the hock; if in front the 
feet of heavy horses are usually affected, light horses 
being liable to affections of the cannons, tendons or liga- 
ments as well as the feet. Wearing of the toe of a front 
shoe is symptomatic of navicular, of a hind shoe spavin; 
if the heel is worn it is likely to be due to either founder 
or ringbone. 

Shoulderslip, or as it is generally termed (Sweeny) is 
rather a common accident in young farm horses, espe- 
cially among those employed in breaking new land con- 
taining bush or tree roots; the shoulder muscles are 
sprained and as a result wasting (atrophy) of the outer 
muscles takes place, and the animal is then said to be 
sweenied. This affection is easy to diagnose when once 
the wasting has occurred, the treatment is necessarily of 
long duration owing to the damage to the muscle cells, 
the wasted muscles usually take months to fill out. In 
the early stages bathing with hot water, and a high 
heeled shoe on the affected limb followed by repeated 
blisters over the shoulder will usually give the desired 
results; rest, the use of a breast collar and avoidance of 
the cause will also aid in recovery. 

Wasting of these muscles may result from rheumatism 
or chest founder (navicular disease). 

Sore shoulder and collar galls are very common on the 
farm and can best be prevented by having collars and 
harnesses that fit. A very good method is on returning a 
horse to the stable to loosen the back pad, collar or sad- 
dle, lift up and replace, leaving there for 15 to 30 min- 
utes, the reason for so doing is that the parts under the 
15 



226 Veterinary Elements. 

harness are quite hot, and if the gear is removed at once 
the parts become chilled and a congested swelling results 
unless a brisk rubbing is given the parts, the use of a 
strong solution of alum and water or salt and water to 
the shoulders after removal of the harness will serve to 
toughen the parts; if sores result they should be treated 
as ordinary wounds, in some cases they are slow to heal, 
e. g., at the top of the neck, in that case needing the 
stimulating effects of some blistering material to increase 
the blood supply to the parts, while the chronic sores of 
the shoulder often take on a hard toughened appearance, 
being termed — sitfasts — such a condition will need the 
surgeon's attention. A sudden swelling often results 
from the use of a collar too small, it is not an abscess 
containing pus, but a swelling containing serum, which 
on being let out resembles bloody water, such cases early 
require careful attention and the veterinarian in order to 
make prompt recoveries, if left they get hard and are a 
continual cause of sore shoulder, eventually calling for 
the knife. Capped knees are quite common in cattle, 
often the result of lack of bedding in the stalls, in the 
early stages bathe with hot water and apply a liniment, 
later on the knife or the insertion of a seton (a piece of 
tape) through the enlargement from top to bottom. 

Splints are bony enlargements oh the cannon which 
connect it with the small splint bones, and are the result 
of inflammation caused by concussions. Young horses are 
very liable, the scrub more so than the pure-bred, owing 
to the inferior quality of the bone (see page 5, anal. ). 
In order to detect them, although in many cases they are 
easily seen, the finger and thumb are passed down over 



Foot and Limb Troubles. 227 

the small cannon bone, notice being taken of any varia- 
tion from the smoothness of those bones. The lameness 
is due to the stretching of the periosteum during the 
throwing out of the bony material (splint formation), the 
lameness quite often disappears when once the splint is 
formed, and the enlargement may also disappear in the 
same manner that a callus does. The lameness shown is 
often out of all proportion to the size of the splint, those 
more serious are close up to the knee joint, exercise in- 
creases the lameness. If no lameness is evident do not 
bother the animal with blisters, etc., always let ''well" 
alone, if lame give rest, reduce any inflammation with 
cold water, and thoroughly rub the parts firmly but 
gently with an oiled leather-covered piece of wood once 
daily, 15 minutes each time, if this fails the red mercury 
blister may be applied a few times at two weeks inter- 
vals. Splints are more common on the fore legs than on 
the hind ones, and oftenest on the inner side of the limb. 

Scratches, mud fever, cracked heels, are relatives, all 
being a form of skin trouble of the limbs, often the re- 
sult of too much washing, clipping the limbs, or an alka- 
line mud. 

The parts should be thoroughly cleansed with warm 
water and castile soap, well dried, and clean, sweet fat 
(unsalted) rubbed in, or a little iodoform and boracic 
acid can be mixed with the lard in the proportion of 1 
to 10 and applied; speaking of this trouble Capt. Hayes 
says "that the external use of water should be confined 
to the animal's muzzle, eyes, dock, and sheath." If any 
inflammation is present poultice with a turnip poultice 



228 Veterinary Elements. 

or hot, dry bran; even in this disease avoid washing the 
limbs as much as possible. 

Ringbone is a disease of the bony structure, occurring 
as the result of inflammation of the pastern or coffin 
bones, usually on the hind pastern, but may be found on 
the fore limbs. This trouble occurs in different locations 
on the pasterns, e. g., if affecting the joint between the 
two pastern bones is termed "high, ringbone,'' if the 
joint between the small pastern and coffin bone is affected 
the low ringbone is said to exist, it is a serious condition. 
Sometimes the enlargement appears on the large pastern 
bone, and it is then termed ' ' false ringbone. ' ' The bony 
deposit may be at the front or sides of the bones affected, 
and may cause lameness by interfering with the move- 
ment of the tendons or ligaments. Eingbones may be 
caused by a horse going on the toe, the result of spavin. 
It is important to remember that the pasterns may be 
rough, large and prominent at the joints and yet not be 
affected, the prominences noticed are to give attachment 
to ligaments and muscles, both pasterns should be alike. 
In the early stages there is a stiffness of movement of the 
pastern joints, and if in the fore foot a tendency to walk 
on the heel, the lameness being shown long before any 
enlargement can be noticed. 

The only satisfactory treatment is the firing iron, fol- 
lowed with a blister, and the avoidance of breeding from 
sires or dams with this disease. 

Sidebones is the apt term used to describe the turning 
into bone of the lateral cartilages, which change may be 
partial or complete; as will be remembered these carti- 
lages are of a gristly nature and yield more or less under 



Foot and Limb Troubles. 229 

pressure with the fingers and thumb. Heavy horses 
seem to be the ones mainly affected, and in connection 
with this fact concussion can hardly be the cause, injury 
from stepping on one another, and heredity, greatest of 
all, are the probable causes. The symptoms are lame- 
ness with a stilty action and shortness of the gait, har- 
dening and enlargement of the cartilages. 

The treatment is not satisfactory, blistering and firing- 
doing no good only in the earlier stages. A bar rocker 
shoe with frog pressure, fomentations and rest, later work 
on soft ground, will be about the best treatment, some 
people have the animal nerved if the lameness continues; 
above all do not breed from a stallion with sidebones, and 
if judging throw out a stallion so affected always. 

Thrush is a disease of the frog usually following lack of 
pressure to the frog and consequent lessening of the blood 
supply; from the dung and urine being allowed to accu- 
mulate in the feet, or too much moisture. 

There is often lameness, and an offensive smell from 
the affected frog, in some cases it has a cheesy-like ap- 
pearance; if the frog is allowed to spoil under the condi- 
tions mentioned, the heels turn in, unless kept low, and 
the foot becomes contracted. Pick and clean the feet 
out once daily; if thrush is present, after cleansing the 
part and cutting away the diseased portion, press in burnt 
alum, cover with tar, or use 

Bluestone 1 ounce, 

Lard 1 ounce, 

Tar 2 ounces. 

Powder the bluestone, mix it with the lard and tar, 
and place over a slow fire so as to melt and thus mix the 



280 Veterinary Elements. 

ingredients; if work has to be continued put in the alum 
or Milestone, cover with oakum or cotton batting, and 
tar. A little turpentine and sweet oil equal parts poured 
into the frog occasionally will tend to harden them and 
prevent thrush, always give frog pressure. 

Coffin joint lameness, navicular disease, is a disease of 
the coffin joint, and its cartilages, which comes on slowly, 
usually the result of concussion, more especially if the 
foot is not a strong one and of good shape, shoeing with 




L C.— Lateral cartilage. H.— Heel. Q.— < Quarter. T.— Toe. 1 .— 
Long pastern bone. 2.— Short pastern bone. 3.— Pedal bone, just behind 
which can be seen the navicular bone. N. J. — Navicular joint. F. — 
Frog. The white portion marked S — Is the sensitive part of the foot, 
including the sensitive lamiive, sole and frog. C. — The coronary sub- 
stance I or band). | .— The hoof horn (insensitive). 

high heels, thus relieving the frog from pressure, will 
thus increase the chances of concussion and indirectly 
increase the tendency to this disease, long, hard, contin- 
ual driving is a frequent cause, the endless bang on ;i hard 



Foot and Limb Troubles. 231 

road will almost invariably cause this disease, the speed 
has little to do with it. The pastern of an affected foot 
is more upright than usual, the hoof upright and con- 
cave and the heels often strong. Pointing in the stable, 
favoring of the limb affected, shortening of the stride, 
with a stilty stubby gait. If one notices a horse affected 
with this disease driven on the street, which is later on 
stopped and tied, the animal will be noticed to paw 
slightly with the affected foot, in fact is really hunting a 
comfortable spot on which to rest the foot so as to allow 
the coffin joint to be flexed, he may even rest the heel 
on a stone. If both feet are affected the gait is very 
short, he paddles, stubs the toes, and if the pain is severe 
will lie down the greater part of the time when in the 
stable; as a result the muscles of the whole limb may 
waste, thus giving rise to the condition termed ' ' chest 
founder, ' > the hoof and coronet will also be narrower than 
usual. 

Treatment — Give rest, blister the coronet and turn on 
a soft pasture; if not cured get your veterinarian to put 
in a frog seton, and if that fails, have him nerve the 
animal, after which operation the feet will need daily 
watching and care, although enabled to work without 
lameness for a year or two after the operation. Have 
the feet pared so as to throw slightly forward on the toe, 
and apply a wide webbed shoe with a roll to the toe. 

Pricks in shoeing are not as common as they used to be, 
the shoeing smiths being more careful than heretofore 
and as a result of the various horseshoers' associations 
are studying the anatomy and physiology of the feet. 
The cause may be, driving nails too close or in the wrong 



232 Veterinarg Element*. 

direction, thus penetrating into or bearing on the quick, 
the lameness and pain may not show for a day or even 
for a couple of weeks, in the latter case pus is likely 
forming. Some horses have thin walled hoofs and are 
easily pricked; the nearer the heel the greater the dan- 
ger, inside quarters being oftener pricked than ontsioV 
ones. If a horse has been left shod for some months and 
when reshod has the foot cat down pretty well, he is apt 
to go lame, due to the strain thrown on the tendons and 
ligaments or to the sole having been made too thin thus 
pressing on the sensitive parts, and the animal may be 
thought to have been pricked. If a horse goes lame 
after shoeing, the nail being driven high or the point 
not shown; or the hammer gives a dull sound, we may 
suspect pricking; if blood follows the withdrawal of a 
nail, or if the nail is wet, due to matter (pus) we can be 
certain that the quick has been hurt, in some cases after 
paring the feet a stain may be seen around the nail hole. 
The color of the matter (pus) is often a guide as to the 
extent of the injury, if black, the wound is only super- 
ficial and will soon recover; a yellowish color shows pus 
more or less deep seated; if purple and a putrid smell 
the chances are that the pedal bone is affected, should 
great pain be shown after letting out the matter, the 
injury is very serious. In this form of disease the same 
rules apply as to other wounds, plenty of drainage so as to 
get the pus away must be given, hence pare the foot, steep 
in a hot antiseptic solution for a couple of hours, or a bath 
of Milestone — one ounce to a pint of water — may be given 
daily, for an hour; if the hoof is hard the application 
of a hot flaxseed poultice will be useful, before doing 



Foot and Limb Troubles. 233 

much paring of the foot; after paring down, baths fol- 
lowed by oakum and tar stoppings are to be preferred to 
poultices. Pricks from shoeing or from nails picked up 
on the street will, if not attended to, result in pus form- 
ing and working upwards to the coronet and there break 
out, thus forming what is know as a "quittor," it is 
needless to say that the treatment for this condition will 
have to be left to the surgeon. 

Corns are bruises of the sensitive sole, usually in that 
portion enclosed by the inner angle of the wall and bars, 
usually present in the fore feet. Weak heels predispose 
to the disease, very strong heels may also result in this 
trouble due to pinching of the sole between them and the 
pedal bone. 

The causes of corns are several, chief of which is 
faulty shoeing, putting pressure on parts not intended to 
bear it, by cutting down the bars or putting on short 
heeled shoes, and especially by the common practice of 
leaving shoes on horses' feet for months at a time without 
resetting and removal of excess of horn growth. Ex- 
cessive thinning of the sole and later stepping on a stone 
will cause the sole bruise (corn), some weak-footed 
horses will have corns in spite of all methods of shoeing; 
barefooted horses rarely have corns. 

The lameness resulting from corns gets worse as the 
-animal is worked who may point. If the shoes are re- 
moved and the sole pared the surface will be noticed to 
be reddened and in some cases pus may be found, always 
-a serious condition. Removal of the shoe, paring out of 
the seat of the corn and a poultice to the foot, will in 
■cases of lameness, due to a corn, result in almost mar- 



234 Veterinary Elements. 

velous cures. Antiseptics, such as tar, should be used 
and a bar or three-quarter shoe should be put on, care 
being taken to avoid pressure on the affected parts. 

Foot rot in cattle and sheep will often occur if the feet 
are allowed to grow too long and get fouled with manure, 
or as a result of running on low-lying, wet, muddy pas- 
tures. Lameness will be excessive, the pain in some 
cases causing the animal to go off its feed, fall behind the 
flock or herd and sometimes go on its knees, in such cases 
trim down the feet and bathe in a Milestone solution 
(sulfate of copper (Milestone) 1 ounce to water 10 ounces), 
then apply tar to the parts, two or three applications of 
the Milestone solution will usually cure most cases; where 
large numbers need treatment the solution is made and 
placed in a wooden trough and the animals walked 
through it; the former conditions should be changed; in 
those cases in which sloughing has occurred butyr of 
antimony may be used to touch the raw spots. 

A good way to treat cattle affected is to take a piece of 
cheesecloth soaked with the drug, after cleaning between 
the cleft, working back and forth and then apply pine 
tar on a clean piece of cheesecloth, which may be tied 
on the foot as follows: Take a piece of cheesecloth and 
split it at both ends; spread tar over the unsplit part 
and draw up between the claws; then bring the ends 
from the back around and tie to those on the front, a 
knot having been tied in each to prevent the split ex- 
tending to far; in severe cases poultice with flaxseed, or 
boiled turnips; do not use cow dung or other dirty 
materials. 



Feot and Limb Troubles. 235 

Dropped Hip is a fairly common fracture occurring in 

horses, sometimes seen in cattle, being in fact the break- 
ing down of the outer point of the hip bone, the result of 
rushing through narrow doorways or animals crowding 
in such places, the careful stockman will always give his 
stock plenty of time to get through doorways, gateways, 
etc. Owing to the action of the muscles attached union 
of the parts is rare, generally the fibrous joint is the 
result (see Fractures), in other cases the parts do not 
unite and an operation has to be performed to remove the 
loose piece of bone. A somewhat similar deformity is 
that due to fracture of the point of the bone of the but- 
tock, just below the root of the tail, to detect the lesion 
one has to stand to one side of the animal, and in dropped 
hip behind. Pain and swelling, together with lameness, 
and occasionally formation of pus aid in the detection of 
these lesions due to accidents. 

Stifle out (luxation of the patella) exists in two forms, 
the partial and complete; the former usually in young 
colts, the result of heredity, stallions poorly muscled 
through the stifles get such stock; the latter in older ani- 
mals, the result of an accident. In young colts the bone 
will be seen to slip in and out, a clicking noise being 
made at each step; for such cases a mild blister repeated 
at two-week intervals will often aid the young patient. 
To avoid such cases feed well, do not keep on very hilly 
pastures, and avoid making the foal follow its dam dur- 
ing the day while working. The construction (anatomy) 
of the parts will aid in understanding this trouble 
and the means of reduction. In partial dislocations in 
grown horses a sharp crack of a whip will startle the 



2M6 Veterinary Elements. 

animal and the bone will fly into place, in other cases 
(complete dislocation) it will be necessary to place a 
rope around the'fetlock of the affected limb, and have an 
assistant to draw the limb well forward, the hand being 
used to press the bone forward and inwards at the same 
time, when it will usually fly into place with a sharp 
click, once in place it is best retained there by keeping 
the limb well forward by means of a sideline and by the 
use of a stifle shoe (a shoe with a piece of iron projecting 
in front four or five inches) to the foot of the affected 
limb. A smart blister, cantkarides (Spanish fly) one 
part to clean sweet lard six parts, applied twice, at an 
interval of two weeks, will assist in repairing the injury. 
That the animal should be rested during the treatment 
every sensible person will understand; treatment in these 
cases should be prompt. 

When the lesion occurs the limb affected is stiff, nailed 
to the ground as it were, kept out behind the body, and 
if made to move is dragged with the toe down, the wall 
and even the front of the pastern may be on the ground, 
the animal moves with very great difficulty. 

Spavin is the bane of horse flesh and horsemen, and 
while of two kinds, (a) bone spavin, affecting the bones 
of the hock, and (b) bog spavin, affecting the bursae of 
the joint and adjacent structures; there is little differ- 
ence as to the serious nature of either trouble, owing to 
the difficulty in curing either form of spavin. 

Bone spavin (jack) is a disease of the bones of the hock 
joint, an inflammation of the articular (joint) surface, 
as a result of which marked lameness is usually shown, 
following which a bony enlargement is thrown out at the 



Foot and Limb Troubles. 237 

lower part of the internal side of the hock joint. The 
more serious bone spavins are those affecting the upper 
row of hock bones situated towards the front of the joint 
and affecting* animals over six years old. Coarse hocks 
may exist, and if no lameness and both are alike should 
not be condemned. The result of this disease is often 
stiffening of the joint. The causes of spavin are bad con- 
formation, sprains, excessive work of the hind limbs, 
result of jumping, high school work, tying in below the 
hocks; this disease is sometimes seen in cattle and sheep. 
Spavin is in many cases easily detected, due to the 
enlargement, being accompanied by lameness, which is 
characterized by a shortening of the stride, dragging of 
the toe, which is unnaturally worn as a consequence, 
lameness, which the horse will warm out of, but if stood 
up for twelve to twenty-four hours will show quite 
markedly, if recent there may be heat of the parts and 
no enlargement, in fact in that form known as occult 
(hidden) spavin no enlargement is shown at all. To de- 
tect the enlargement the examiner should stand in front 
and a little to the outside of the fore leg of the same side 
as the hock to be examined, the hock should present a 
somewhat wedge-shaped appearance, the base being up- 
wards, by placing one's self in a similar position by the 
other fore leg the other hock is seen and a comparison 
made, the only safe way to detect the enlargement; if 
suspected the examiner may flex (close the joint) the 
hock up tightly and have the animal trotted off quickly, 
which, if affected, will limp perceptibly. The hocks 
should also be felt with the hands, the off hock with the 
left palm, etc. The treatment is preventive and cura- 



>:;s 



Veterinary Elements. 



tive, the former by avoiding the use of spavined sires or 
dams, by proper shoeing and avoidance of too heavy 
loads; the curative consists in reducing the inflammation 
by giving rest, warm fomentations, a high-heeled shoe, 
and a blister (the red iodide of mercury), and if that 
fails the firing iron and blister, which should be left to 
the veterinarian. It is an unsoundness. In some cases 
in which firing does not relieve, tibial neurectomy (cut- 
ting of the nerve) or cunean tenotomy (cutting of the 
tendon) of the parts should be performed by the surgeon. 
Bog spavin is a condition in which the capsular liga- 
ment of the hock joint is distended by joint oil (synovia), 
appearing as a soft swelling on the inner sides of the 
hock, just above the site of bone 
spavin. This disease occurs in 
two forms, (1) without any in- 
flammation or lameness; (2) a 
hard, painful swelling with ac- 
companying lameness. The 
causes are premature overwork, 
defective conformation, due to 
heredity, the swelling being soft 
and cool, it may be due to over- 
act© spavin and thobough- feeding, such as for show pur- 
pin truss. poses, in such cases cold water 

compresses and a good hand rubbing for 20 to 30 minutes 
before taking before the judges will often remove the 
enlargement for a short time; treatment is usually 
unsatisfactory, pressure by the use of a bog spavin and 
thoroughpin truss being the best. 




Foot and Limb Troubles. 



239 



Thoroughpins are rarely absent when bog spavin exists, 
and are due to the pressure of the fluid constituting the 
bog spavin on the bursae of the perforans tendon, which 
is thus pushed out of place. 
This lesion appears as a 
swelling at the back part of 
the hind leg, just above 
the point of the hock and 
in front of the hamstring, 
it can be pressed from side 
to side with the finger, the 
treatment is the same as for 
bog spavin. In draft stal- 
lions may be due to a sprain 
of the tendons, a serious 
condition. 

Curb is an enlargement (a 
bowing out) at the back part 
of the hock, about six to 
eight inches below its point, 
usually it is described as a 
sprain of the ligaments at the 
back of the hock, quite often 
the bones of the part are 
affected also, the enlargement being due in many cases 
to pushing outward of the ligament by the inflamed bone. 
To detect the enlargement it is often necessary to stand 
to one side of the hock and then to the other so as to see 
the back line of the leg in profile. The causes of this 
trouble are many, jumping and slipping, going up steep 
inclines, and more especially conformation, the result of 




SAD (CTELY) HIND 

c a curb. 



240 Veterinary Elements. 

heredity. Horsemen often speak of curby (sickle) hocks, 
such a conformation is especially liable to curb, and is 
readily transmitted to the progeny by an affected sire. 
The leverage exerted in connection with the hock joint 
is very powerful, the ground being the fulcrum; the 
weight, the resistance of the head of the lower thigh bone; 
the power, the muscles of the gaskin (lower thigh) at- 
tached to the point of the hock. The tendency to curb 
will be increased by (1) work too severe for the strength 
of the lever, (2) by disease or immaturity having ren- 
dered the parts unequal to the strain, (3) by the surface 
for attachment of the ligaments being too small, atied-in 
hock, (4) by the muscles of the gaskin being very strong, 
(5) by the presence of a large angle formed by the direc- 
tion of the weight and lever, as in the sickle hock. It 
is an unsoundness and a very bad defect in stallions; is 
probably commoner in light than heavy horses; lameness 
is shown in the earlier stages as a rule. The applica- 
tion of a high-heeled shoe and the red mercurial blister 
( biniodide of mercury 1 to 4 of lard) will generally over- 
come the trouble; if the lameness and enlargement per- 
sist, the veterinarian should be asked to fire the parts. 

Stringhalt is a disease of a tendon of the hind limb, it 
used to be classed as a purely nervous affection. The 
affected parts (tendons) undergo severe contractions as 
a result of inflammation of those tendons. The exag- 
gerated flexing of the hock, more quickly than natural, 
and high lifting of the foot seen when the animal is 
backed or moved forward, render the recognition of this 
disease quite plain; the treatment is surgical, and con- 



Foot and Limb Troubles. 241 

sists in cutting the tendon (peroneus) a short distance 
below the hock. 

Shoeboil (capped elbow) is situated at the point of the 
elbow, the result of too narrow stalls, lack of bedding or 
pressure of the heels of the shoe when lying down; to 
prevent it the heel should be padded. This trouble 
usually calls for the intervention of the surgeon before 
being finally cured; if it is well fomented with warm 
water in the early stages and the following liniment 
applied, 

Soap liniment ] pint, 

Strong spirits of ammonia \ drachm, 

every day for two weeks, being well rubbed in, the more 
serious blemish may be avoided. 

Capped hock occurs in two forms, that due to enlarge- 
ment of the joint oil sac (burs*) of the part, and the 
less serious form, the cyst formed between the tendon 
and the skin, usually the result of injury, such as kick- 
ing in the stable. When the inflammation is overcome 
it may be blistered occasionally; grooms favor a paste of 
vinegar and fuller's earth applied over the parts when in 
the stable. 
16 



CHAPTEE XX. 

EXTERNAL AND INTERNAL PARASITES OF 
ANIMALS. 

Parasitic troubles are numerous among the stockman's 
charges, and are in many cases hard to overcome, horses, 
sheep and poultry seem to be more commonly affected 
than cattle and pigs. In order to render the study of 
these parasites easier, they will be classified into (A) ex- 
ternal, (B) internal. 

(A) External parasites cause such diseases as scab in 
sheep, mange in horses and dogs, lice of all farmstock, 
including poultry, the warbles of cattle, ringworm of 
cattle and grease of horses. 

Scab is a disease of sheep, caused by one of the mange 
parasites (sarcoptes ovis), and is transmitted by contact 
from one sheep to the other. Eange sheep are more com- 
monly affected than those kept on the farms, although 
the recent laws and systematic dippings are tending to 
stamp it out. Sheep affected with this disease do not 
thrive, they are continually rubbing themselves, due to 
the itching caused by the parasite (scabmite), the wool 
falls out, leaving large, bare, raw spots, and often forma- 
tion of scabs and tagging of the wool, later the skin be- 
comes furrowed and thickened and bleeds from the 
cracks. The best treatment is preventive in character. 
Dip all sheep before putting with the flock; affected 
sheep should be kept from healthy sheep, and dipped a 



External and Internal Parasites of Animals. 



243 



couple of times at two- week intervals; the various dips on 
the market, such as Cooper's, Little's, etc., are reliable. 




A CASE OF SCAB. 

Mange in horses and dogs is not easy to control.; in 
horses it affects the mane and tail, spreading; to the jaws, 
body and thighs, there is great itchiness and a tendency 
to rub, pimples form and discharge a serum and bare 
spots appear; the skin gets a roughened sore appearance, 
it usually takes one to two months to develop, and is 
very contagious, the latter symptoms distinguishing it 
from eczema. In order to get at the parasites, the hair 
should be clipped and the clippings burned, the animal 
should be washed with soap and warm water to a quart 
of which should be added a tablespoonful of concentrated 



244 Veterinary Elements. 

lye or washing soda, using a stiff brush to apply the 
suds; creolin one ounce to the pint of water, or sulfur 
one to lard eight parts should be well rubbed in dally 
after the first washing. All harness should be cleansed, 
currycombs and brushes immersed for a few minutes in 
boiling water, and the bedding burned if these articles 
have been used for mangy animals. Hot carbolic lime 
wash sprayed over the stalls will also be beneficial. That 
form of manginess affecting the limbs of hairy legged 
horses commonly termed grease, is also hard to over- 
come, the same general treatment should be given, for 
the local application after the washing, the sulfur-kero- 
sene mixture so much used by heavy horsemen will be 
found very penetrating and consequently very beneficial. 
In this form the mange mites commence at the back of 
the pastern and work up to the knee or hock, affecting 
the hind limbs generally; there is great itchiness, the 
horses bite and rub their fetlocks, and often are heard to 
strike the ground frequently with the foot. Cracks, 
crusts and thickening of the skin result from this dis- 
ease. A form of this disease known as scaly legs occurs 
in poultry, in which cases the legs are swelled and rough- 
ened in appearance, due to the standing out of the scales, 
washing with warm soapsuds and the application of cre- 
olin, kerosene, being careful with the latter, or hen oil 
(Tilson) a few times will overcome the trouble. 

Lice infest all varieties of farm stock, and make their 
presence known by the excessive itchiness shown by the 
stock and the appearance of the parasites and their eggs 
(nits). The treatment will vary with the animals, if 
sheep or pigs are affected, the former with a red louse, 



External and Internal Parasites of Animals. 245 

dip as for scab, using such materials as creolin, germol, 
chloronaphtholeum, etc., and repeat the dipping in two 
weeks 1 time, thus allowing time for the nits to hatch out, 
when the new lice can be destroyed; ticks of sheep need 
the same treatment, usually given by the best shepherds 
shortly after shearing. Cattle need the application of 
creolin and water (one to twenty), melted lard and kero- 
sene (two to one) or the kerosene emulsion made as fol- 
lows: 

One-half pound hard soap and one gallon of water, 
boil until the soap is dissolved, then add two gallons of 
kerosene (coal oil) and mix thoroughly; when about to 
use take one part of the emulsion to four to eight parts 
of the water; in place of the hard soap, whale oil soap or 
one quart of soft soap may be used. 

Ringworm is a contagious disease due to a fungus found 
on man, horses and cattle; it often dies out of its own 
accord. This disease, as the name implies, shows itself 
by bare ring-shaped patches, in which the hairs are seen 
to be broken off close to the skin, on some spots the hairs 
are split at the ends or are dead. The parasite often 
affects the skin around the eyes of cattle, and in some 
cases will spread over the neck or on parts of the body. 
The affected parts should be well washed with soapsuds, 
using a brush to remove any of the dead skin scales, 
then follow with one of the following ointments, one being 
as useful as the other : 

Salicylic acid 1 part, 

Clean sweet lard <> parts, 

or 

Iodide of sulfur 1 part, 

Lard 8 parts, 



246 Veterinary Elements. 

which should be applied once or twice daily for a week, 
being applied by rubbing well in with the fingers; as the 
disease is contagious the harness, combs, brushes, etc., 
should be disinfected as recommended for mange. Af- 
fected animals should be given good food and tonics. 

Maggots in animals are generally found on wounds, 
and often on sheep that are left untagged, is really 
induced by uncleanliness; summer time is the period 
when the pests are to be found, hence the reason for the 
avoidance of such operations as dehorning during the 
summer months; as soon as lly time begins maggots, 
which are the larvae of Hies, being hatched from their 
eggs, should be looked for. The treatment is cleanli- 
ness, frequent tagging (cutting off the pieces of wool 
soiled with the urine or feces ) of sheep, and the occa- 
sional application of creolin, or some other antiseptic. 

Grub in the head is a disease affecting sheep, due to the 
sheep gadfly laying its eggs in the nostrils of the sheep, 
which eggs eventually hatch out the larvae or grub, 
causes sneezing and discharge of mucus from the nostrils 
and by the irritation set up in the nasal cavities may 
cause death. Preventive measures are the most satis- 
factory to adopt, tarring the nostrils being as good as 
any, for a flock, it is recommended to bore two inch 
auger holes in a log, place salt in the bottom and smear 
the edges with the tar, the sheep in their desire for salt 
will in this way apply the tar themselves, further treat- 
ment is surgical and not practicable for general flock 
management. Sheep seem to know intuitively the result 
of the attacks of this gadfly and will try to bury their 
noses in the earth to avoid its attack. 



External and Internal Parasites of Animals. 247 

The horn fly of cattle is very common in some seasons, 
it is a little black fly, often found in clusters around the 
horn base, for its prevention bi-weekly applications of 
fish oil containing carbolic acid, one ounce to the gallon 
of oil and applied along the back and around the horns. 
Its effects are too well known to need description. The 
use of this mixture will also tend to keep off the warble 
fly, the effects of which are seen in the warbles found on 
the backs of cattle, when removed the warble (larvae of 
the fly) should be at once destroyed. Hides are often 
materially injured owing to attacks of this fly during the 
life of the animal. 

Poultry lice cause intense itching and loss of condition 
in the host, and should not be permitted to exist in any 
up-to-date poultry house. Cases are cited in which ani- 
mals (horses, etc.,) have become affected when the poul- 
try roosted with them. The removal of the poultry and 
the use of insect powder if in winter or the creolin lotion 
in summer, together with the plentiful use of kerosene 
or hot lime wash, will overcome the trouble; use sulfur 
lavishly or insect powder in the nests. Hen houses 
should be thoroughly treated twice yearly with hot lime 
wash, the roosts and nests being plentifully dowsed with 
kerosene. 

Summer sores in horses are said to be parasitic in their 
nature, in India being termed bursattee. The disease is 
shown by sores on the skin, at the fetlocks, sheath, face, 
lips and front of the chest; at the beginning the sores are 
red and unhealthy looking, sometimes nearly a foot in 
diameter, are often kept moist by the discharge, in the 
sores are often found little pea- shaped hard yellowish 



L'4S Veterinary Elements. 

bodies; the sores heal of their own accord in cold weather. 
In accordance with the idea of parasitic origin, strong 
antiseptics should be used, carbolic acid full strength, 
later paint on camphor one part to carbolic acid, two 
and one-half parts. The application of one of the fol- 
lowing after the sore begins to look healthy will be all 
that is needed, in addition to preventing any irritation : 

Carbolic acid 1 ounce, 

Resin 1 ounce, 

Camphor 5 ounces, 

Methylated spirits 15 ounces, 

or 

Iodoform 1 dram, 

Oil of eucalyptus 1 ounce. 

Keep the sore covered with the drugs until healed. 



INTERNAL PARASITES. 

Bots are the larva' of gad flies which lay their orange- 
colored eggs on the legs and between the jaws of horses, 
the eggs are licked off or fall into the feed and are thus 
swallowed by the horse, where they are hatched out ii 
the stomach, where the larva' (bot) will stay for months, 
later on being passed out in the dung to be hatched out 
as the gadfly, so well known to horsemen and so much 
dreaded by their charges. It is doubtful if any horses 
in this country are free from bots, postmortems invaria- 
bly showing them to be present in varying numbers. 
The preventive treatment is to destroy the eggs. A 
cloth dampened with kerosene will tend to remove them. 
The effect of bots depends on the number present, if few 



External and Internal Parasites of Animals. 249 

no ill effects are noticed, but if many, the horse is un- 
thrifty, suffers from indigestion and may die from their 
effects on the stomach walls; they are fastened on the 
-stomach walls very firmly and it is doubtful whether 
medicines have much effect, turpentine two ounces in 
one and one- half pints of new milk three mornings in 
succession, given on an empty stomach, will probably be 
as effectual as any drug. Copperas powders, owing to 
their tonic and astringent effect on the mucous mem- 
branes will also be beneficial: tartar emetic two drams 
in the food daily for two weeks might be used in place 
of the drench. 

Pin worms are small thin whip-like worms one to one 
-and a half inches long, found in the posterior bowel 
(rectum), while producing little disturbance of the gen- 
oral health, they manifest themselves as a rule by a yel- 
low waxy matter around the anus and by rubbing of the 
tail and hind parts, the worms may also be found in or 
passed with the excrement. The treatment is mainly 
local, by means of injections, first give an injection to 
-clean out the bowel, and follow it with one of salt and 
water, one ounce of salt to one-half gallon of water: or a 
decoction of quassia chips may be used, if the injections 
fail to remove them, internal treatment will be needed. 

Round worms are the larger kind usually found in 
horses, and when full grown are six to fourteen inches in 
length: they usually inhabit the small intestines; when 
rnauy are present the animal loses condition, gets pot- 
bellied, has a rough coat, capricious appetite, shows a 
tendency to eat dirt, with occasionally a colic or diarr- 
hoea, and presence of worms in the dung. The riddance 



250 



Veterinary Elements. 



of a horse of these parasites is not very difficult if a 
thorough effort is made to dislodge them, in order to get 
the best effects the animal should be starved before giving: 
the drugs, which may be as follows : 








STOMACH OF A HORSE. 

G.— The gullet (esophagus). 

Tartar emetic | drachm, 

» Copperas \ drachm, 

mixed and given in the feed three times a day, followed 
by a dose of aloes, or: 

Turpentine two ounces, new milk one pint, given three 
successive mornings on an empty stomach, the fourth 



External and Internal Parasites of Animals. 251 

morning give Tartar emetic two drachms in a pint of 
raw linseed oil, if the horse has to be worked steadily 
the following powders will be useful: 

Powdered copperas 1 ounce, 

Powdered Milestone 1 ounce, 

Powdered susrar 2 ounces, 




TYPE OF RUMINANT (OX, .SHEEP AND GOAT) STOMACH. 

Photo of ram's stomach, the upper edge in the cut lies in the front 
position in the animal. P.— Paunch. G.— Gullet. H —Honeycomb. 
M ,— Manyplies. R — Rennet or fourth stomach (abomasum). 

mix and make into twelve powders, one to be given twice 
daily in the feed. 

Worms are not common in cattle; in sheep are the fre- 
cpient cause of losses and occasionally so in pigs. 



252 Veterinary Elements. 

Stomach worms, usually found in lambs, are the most 
serious and most common, they are very small, one-quar- 
ter to one-third inch long, pale reddish in color, being 
found in the fourth stomach only. Lambs affected are 
thirsty, pale in the eyes, lose weight, are dull, lose their 
appetite, may scour or eat dirt. Benzine or gasoline 
two to four drachms in six ounces of new milk, given 
three mornings in succession on an empty stomach, have 
been highly recommended; creolin and milk, in similar 
doses may also be used. Worm powders for sheep should 
be mixed with plenty of salt and placed in the salt 
troughs. 

Tape worms when present cause symptoms similar to 
those described for stomach worms, in addition, paleness 
of the skin and mucous membrane, brittleness of the 
fleece, loss of flesh, voracious appetite, pieces of the tape 
worm in the dung; they are more prevalent in wet sea- 
sons and on damp pastures. 

Turpentine in raw milk, a decoction of pumpkin seeds, 
are old and tried remedies; santonine, as much as will 
lie on a five-cent piece, or tannateof pelletierine three to 
five grains, are new remedies recommended. The best 
preventive treatment is to change the pastures and crop 
the old ones for a few years. 

A long worm is sometimes found in the intestines of 
pigs, unless in considerable numbers they seldom cause 
much trouble, if suspected give turpentine in milk or oil, 
or oil of wormseed. 



CHAPTEE XXI. 
CONTAGIOUS DISEASES AND THEIR SUPPRESSION. 

Diseases of germ origin have become of great import- 
ance to the stock raiser in recent years and are more 
easily controlled than formerly, owing to the work of 
bacteriologists and veterinarians. Hygiene, which 
means pure food, good water, pure air, sunshine and 
cleanliness, prevent the harboring of germs and thus limit 
or prevent their propagation. 

Tuberculosis, commonly termed consumption, is quite 
prevalent in the human race and in cattle is not 
at all uncommon. The cause of the disease is the 
bacillus tuberculosis, discovered by Koch in 1882. 
Heredity is only a predisposing cause, as are lack 
of pure air, innutritions food, lack of sunlight, as 
in dark basement barns, etc. The disease is not easily 
discovered in the early stages without the aid of the 
tuberculin test, which is a very reliable method when 
when in the hands of competent men, and is entirely 
without danger to the animal tested; in the latter stages 
of this serious trouble the disease is evidenced by a fre- 
quent cough, general ill-health, shown by the staring- 
coat, capricious appetite, and sometimes a stinking diar- 
rhoea. Treatment in the usual sense of the term is not 
practicable; but the progress of the disease in a herd 
may be arrested by culling out the diseased cattle at least 
once a year by means of the tuberculin test, separating 



254 



Veterinary Elements. 



the healthy from the unhealthy, and raising the calves 
from the diseased cattle, removing them as soon as 
dropped, however, from the dams, this being known as 
the Bang method. 1 Slaughter, based only on the results of 




GIVING THE TUHERCUEIN TEST. 

the tuberculin test,, is an insane and expensive method 
of extermination of this pest, recommended by some bac- 
teriologists and veterinarians; it is time enough to slaugh- 
ter when the animals shown to be affected by the tuber- 
culin test also show clinical symptoms, as mentioned 
above. Sunlight, pure air, good food and tonics, oil 
meal, etc, will all aid in keeping animals in good health, 
in which condition they are practically more or less im- 



latig is a noted veterinary professor a1 Copenhagen. 



Contagious Diseases and Their Suppression. 255 

pregnable to the germ. It is a good plan to test with 
tuberculin all animals brought into the herd ; especially 
if the herd is made up of pure-bred stock. The tuber- 
culin test, it should be remembered, is not infallible. 
Thorough disinfection of stables should never be neg- 
lected when tuberculosis has made its appearance; the 
fact of its contagious nature must never be forgotten ; the 
probable danger to human beings can best be limited by 
the tuberculin test followed by Bang's method, pasteur- 
ization of milk and thorough meat inspection. 

Glanders and farcy hold a somewhat similar position to 
horses that tuberculosis does to cattle, although not as 
common as that disease, yet is cpiite contagious, and in 
the early stages hard to detect, in which case the use of 
the mallein test is useful to detect the earliest inroads of 
the glanders germ, the bacillus mallei. This disease is 
transmissible to man, in whom it manifests itself by loath- 
some symptoms. The symptoms, when the disease is far 
enough advanced, in horses are as follows: A discharge 
from one or both nostrils, usually from the left one, of a 
sticky, green, gluey nature, with a discharge from the 
eyes and enlargement of the submaxillary gland found 
beneath the jaws; in the local form, termed Farcy, little 
lumps form on the limbs and body, which eventually 
break and discharge pus. Treatment of this disease is 
not advisable, in fact under the contagious diseases acts 
of various states, slaughter is called for, and is the best 
means so far of controlling the disease. 

Black-leg or quarter ill is a rather common disease af- 
fecting young cattle, being, of undoubted germ origin, but 
fortunately, owing to the scientists, can be controlled in 



256 Veterinary Elements. 

a herd. This disease appears somewhat suddenly, its- 
presence being made known by death of the young cattle 
between six months and two years of age, especially dur- 
ing the months of June, July and August. Crackling 
swellings on the skin of the body, thighs, neck, shoulders, 
etc., and limbs above the knees and hocks, which swell- 
ings are at first small and painful, later becoming cold 
and insensible, together with fever, loss of appetite, and 
stoppage of rumination are all signs of this disease. The 
swellings give out a crackling sound when the hand is 
passed over them, if an incision is made into them a dark 
red, frothy, nasty smelling fluid flows from the wound. 
The germ obtains entrance through wounds in the skin, 
taking from one to five days to develop. The germ re- 
tains its vitality and contagious character for months, fire 
being its surest destroyer. The most satisfactory treat- 
ment is that of a preventive nature, obtained by the use 
of Blackleg vaccine or blacklegine, which can be got 
from any druggist. All dead bodies of Cattle affected 
with this disease should be burned. 

Hog cholera and swine plague may be considered, for 
all practical purposes, as one disease, differing only in 
locality, the first named attacking the intestines of hogs: 
the second the lungs of those animals. The disease is 
very contagious and fatal to hogs. The onset of the 
disease may last from a few hours to several weeks. 
Hogs affected droop and cough, lose their appetite and 
flesh rapidly, are very weak, may show diarrhoea or 
constipation with pink spots over the abdomen or thighs. 
The bowels are often found to be ulcerated and the 
lungs inflamnied on post-mortem. Treatment so far lias 



Contagious Diseases and Their Suppression. 257 

not been successful, though numerous quack remedies 
are advertised to cure the trouble: preventive inocula- 
tion is not yet a success, the Bureau of Animal Industry 
recommends the following mixture to be given in the 
feed, one tablespoonful to each hog: 

Charcoal 1 fl > . 

Sulphur 1 fl>. 

Common salt 2 ft>s. 

Baking soda 2 His. 

Sulphate of soda 2 tbs. 

Hyposulphite of soda 2 lbs. 

Black antimony 1 ft>. 

If the disease appears in a drove of hogs, separate the 
sick from the well, and ship the latter to market; disin- 
fect the pens thoroughly, using plenty of lime, destroy 
all the bedding used with fire. Quarantine all new hogs 
for fifteen days before placing with the drove; do not 
allow persons from infected farms to go into the pig pens 
or yards. 

Tetanus, or lockjaw, as it is commonly known, is more 
common in cities than in the country; it might be de- 
scribed as a state of continued contraction of voluntary 
muscles (those under control of the will). This disease 
is due to germs which usually get into the animal by a 
wound, once in that wound these germs produce power- 
ful poisons, the results of which are shown in animals by 
the following symptoms: Inability to open the mouth as 
wide as normal, the nose poked out, the head slightly 
elevated, the tail may be raised, the animal is very stiff 
in its movements; if the head is suddenly lifted or the 
animal frightened the haw will be seen to fly over the 

17 



258 Veterinary Elements. 

eye, a safe indication of this disease; the nostrils are 
dilated, breathing quickened and the belly tucked up. 
The animal gets constipated and often its mouth gets foul, 
due to retention of food in it. Death usually occurs from 
spasm of the chest muscles or those of the larynx. The 
period of incubation (time elapsing between the attack 
by the germ and symptoms of the disease) is usually 
from three to ten days; recovery is rare before the third 
week, often five to six weeks are necessary before con- 
valescence begins; the sooner symptoms are shown the 
more fatal the disease. The germ of this disease is found 
in earth and decaying matter, hence as this disease is 
one of wound infection, it is readily seen how important 
cleanliness and the use of antiseptics are in the treatment 
of all wounds. The treatment of this disease calls for 
the most skilled veterinary attention, the stockman doing 
his part by keeping the animal perfectly quiet and free 
from annoyance by visitors, the stall well bedded, a sup- 
ply of nourishing food on hand and watching to see that 
the animal does not get down and struggle. This dis- 
ease may follow castration, docking, wounds of the feet, 
even such as overreaches, etc., and the use of unclean 
instruments. The anti-tetanic serum is being used in this 
disease; so far it shows greater value as a preventive than 
as a curative agent. 

Texas fever is a disease of the Southern states affecting 
cattle, the poison (virus) of the disease being carried 
by a tick. The disease shows itself in cattle by fever, 
bloody urine, dropsy, deficiency of blood, loss of appe- 
tite, stoppage of milk secretion and rumination, rapid 
wasting and death; post-mortems show the spleen 



Contagious Diseases and Their Suppression. 259 

enlarged, as is the liver. The only effective treatment 
is of the preventive character, by inoculation with the 
blood sernni of an affected animal. 

Anthrax is a rapidly fatal disease of cattle and other 
animals, the result of the inroads of the anthrax germ. 
The suddenness of attack, ending in death in from a few 
hours to a few days, high fever, congestion of mucous 
membranes, bloody discharges from natural openings of 
the body, signs of brain congestion, such as excitement, 
bellowing, convulsions, stupor, and death; difficult, 
rapid breathing, and as previous symptoms indigestion, 
constipation, diminished vivacity. The treatment is 
entirely of the preventive order, the use of anthrax vac- 
cine. Burn all carcasses or sprinkle with quicklime, 
handle as little as possible, as this disease is more or less 
deadly to the human being, hence one should never hold 
a post mortem on such a case, neither should the animal 
be skinned; tanners and wool sorters sometimes become 
infected with this disease through hides and fleeces. 

Lumpy jaw (actinomycosis) is due to the invasion of 
the tissues by the ray fungus. This disease is quite com- 
mon in cattle, usually showing itself in those animals by 
enlargements of the lower jaw, in the early stages the 
lumps are quite movable, later on the jaw bone becomes 
affected; occasionally the upper jaw is affected or the 
tumors are found on the skin of the head and neck; may 
be in the pharynx when they cause difficulty in swallow- 
ing; the tongue is rarely found to be affected in Ameri- 
can cattle, in Europe is often hardened and is then 
termed wooden tongue. The disease is rarely general 
throughout the system except in the later stages. This 



260 Veterinary Elements. 

disease is not strictly speaking contagions from animal 
to animal according to the latest investigations, in fact 
the fungus vegetates on the grasses, especially on the 
awns of the barley family, and by means of these stiff 
awns may enter the month and gain entrance through a 
small wound, defective tooth, etc., into the system. No 
satisfactory evidences of the transmission of the disease 
from animal to man are obtainable, hence the wholesale 
condemnation for food of animals affected with this dis- 
ease is wasteful and irrational, condemnation is only 
excusable when the disease is general throughout the 
system or sufficiently so to have affected the general 
health of the animal. The treatment of this disease is 
in a large majority of cases quite possible and satisfac- 
tory, iodide of potash in the proper doses being in a 
measure a specific for this disease. Surgical methods 
are also very useful, and in a valuable animal with the 
enlargement in a favorable situation, are to be recom- 
mended. It is advisable to start treatment as soon as 
any enlargement is seen, mature cattle should get from 
one to two drams of the drug twice daily, either in pow- 
der form in the feed, or dissolved in a little water and 
given as a drench, the latter the preferable method. The 
use of the drug should be persisted with until symptoms 
of iodism, such as weeping from the eyes, scurfy condi- 
tion of the skin, etc., are shown; generally speaking, the 
use of the drug for two weeks will be sufficient: Tinct- 
ure of iodine may also be painted over the enlargement 
frequently. In those cases in which a large open sore 
has resulted, in addition to the internal treatment a mix- 
ture of equal parts of sulfuric acid and turpentine may 



Contagious Diseases and Their Suppression. 261 

be applied with a wooden paddle; get the druggist to 
mix the two drugs. 

Contagious eye disease in cattle, technically termed 
contagious keratitis, is in some localities and at some 
seasons quite a common disease, usually appears in the 
summer or fall. One or both eyes may be affected, the 
eyelids swollen and closed and seem unable to bear the 
clear light, there is a milky appearance of the front part 
of the eye, the cornea, thus giving rise to the common idea 
that a scum is over it, the darkest spot, often a yellow 
color, is seen in the center, in some cases a purulent 
(mattery) discharge is present, sometimes the contents 
of the eye escape and vision thereby destroyed, the af- 
fected animal stops eating, cows will fail in their milk. 
Fortunately the majority of cases recover completely 
under proper treatment, which is quite simple but effect- 
ive. It is as follows: Separate all the affected cattle 
from the healthy ones, and give those affected the usual 
dose of epsom salts, place in a darkened stall and keep 
a clean cloth dampened with a solution of boracic 
acid, one ounce to a quart of clean water containing a 
couple of ounces of laudanum or belladonna, over the eye, 
or else apply the solution mentioned once or twice daily; 
as many very bad cases recover, treatment should be 
persisted in, if the eye does not seem to clear, or an ab- 
scess forms, apply the following solution with a piece of 
clean cheese cloth once daily: 

Silver nitrate 5 grains, 

Distilled water 1 ounce. 

Contagious abortion is the scourge of the stockman, 
usually affecting cattle, occasionally sheep. This disease 



262 Veterinary Elements. 

has been proved to be due to a germ, consequently anti- 
septic measures are the ones to adopt in order to be suc- 
cessful. The disease tends to run out in a herd in the 
course of three or four years, unless freshly infected cat- 
tle are brought into the herd;, sterility (barrenness) fre- 
quently follows this disease, a condition thought to be 
due to an acid condition of the uterine contents caused 
by the germ of this disease. Abortions usually occur 
during the third or the seventh month of pregnancy, 
aud are detected by the swelling of the udder, a dirty 
reddish purulent discharge from the genitals, a decrease 
and change in the character of the milk, and the dead 
fetus, which is generally expelled three days after the 
appearance of the discharge. Abortion early in the preg- 
nancy is often undetected until a short time before the 
date of calving, when the stockman is quite surprised to 
find the animal showing signs of heat. The treat- 
ment of this serious disease is mainly preventive, all 
pregnant animals should be removed from those aborting 
and the separation should be complete. Disinfection 
must be carried out as follows: All cows should have 
the external genitals thoroughly washed with a solution 
of corrosive sublimate, one part to 2,000 of water, or a 
half to two per cent, solution of carbolic acid or creolin; 
those animals that have aborted should have a couple of 
quarts of one of the solutions injected into the vagina 
and uterus. The washing of the external genitals should 
take place daily, once or twice a week will be often 
enough for the injections, depending on the amount of 
the discharges. All fetuses, soiled bedding and dis- 
charges should be destroyed, the stables should receive 



Contagious Diseases and Their Suppression. 263 

thorough and frequent sprinkling with quicklime or 
chloride of lime, spraying of the walls and stalls with 
hot lime wash will also be beneficial. The bull may be 
the source of contagion in a herd, so that the penis and 
sheath of that animal should also be attended to; injec- 
tions into the skin of a carbolic solution (two per cent. ) 
every two weeks have been recommended by some, others 
preferring the administration of the drug in the food, 
when given in this manner, the dose is from fifteen drops 
to two drams, dissolved in half an ounce of glycerine 
and fed in a bran mash, two or three times a week. Af- 
fected animals should not be used again for breeding 
until the vaginal discharge has ceased completely; a 
change in the bull used is said to have a favorable effect 
on the disease, he must, of course, be from a healthy 
herd. 

Distemper of colts or strangles is a contagious disease 
appearing in young horses at from two to five years; the 
disease being due to the streptococcus of Schiitz. Horses 
are seldom attacked with the disease more than once, 
and owing to the consequences are more valuable, if 
passed safely through the disease. The swell iing of the 
submaxillary gland beneath the lower jaw, the high 
fever, loss of appetite, the discharge from the nostrils at 
first thin and sticky, later becoming thick, whitish-yel- 
low and creamy, together with the age of the patient 
render the recognition of this disease quite easy; later 
on the hot tender swelling below the jaw points and the 
contents of the abscess are soon discharged, as soon as 
this happens the colt is at once relieved and begins to 
recover, unless other diseases set in. Unfortunately 



12G4 Veterinary Elements. 

such troubles as inflammation of the larynx, of the 
lungs, nasal gleet or pyaemia (abscess format ion through- 
out the body) may result, in such cases the veterinar- 
ian is essential; so severe are the symptoms occasionally 
that the surgeon may have to insert a tube in the wind 
pipe to avoid suffocation of the animal. The ordinary 
form runs its course inside of three weeks; if prolonged 
beyond that time or the animal steadily refuses to eat, 
skilled assistance should be called. The treatment is 
mainly hygienic and calls for good nursing. Regulate 
the bowels with the food, bathe the swelling beneath 
the jaw with hot water or apply a blister, which when it 
has become soft should be opened and the pus drained 
out; if breathing is painful steam the head (let the 
horse inhale the steam) with hot water to which turpen- 
tine or creolin has been added. 

Influenza is a very wide term applied to epizootics of 
the horse; pink eye is one form of the disease, stock- 
yards fever, so called, is another form. This disease is 
more or less serious, depending to a great extent on the 
health of the animal and the healthiness of its surround- 
ings. It may be set down as a general rule that a horse 
off feed should not be worked, and if the clinical ther- 
mometer shows a fevered condition in the animal the 
veterinarian should be consulted. Partial or complete 
loss of appetite, fever, great nervous depression, partial 
loss of control of the limbs, constipation, slimy feces, 
discharges from the eyes, cough, sore throat, swelling of 
the limbs, sheath and along the belly, and occasionally 
a nasal discharge are all common symptoms of influenza; 
a serious result in pregnant mares is abortion; few carry 



Contagious Diseases and Their Suppression. 



!65 



their foals the full time. The duration of the disease is 
usually six to ten days if uncomplicated; a constant 
watch must be kept for lung' or blood complications. 
Oive good food, pure air, sunlight, etc., avoid draughts: 
hot mashes containing powdered ginger and chlorate of 
potash, of each half an ounce, will be useful until the 
veterinarian is called: if the throat is sore, the ammonia 
liniment may be rubbed in and the head steamed. 




A STEER ROPED FOR TH ROWING. (SEE P. JLSd. ) 

The front hitch should be lower down the neck, the back hitch should 
be six inches further ahead to obtain the best results. Thirty feet of rope 
is required. 

Gonorrhoea of stallions and mares. A contagious dis- 
ease of some moment during the breeding season some- 
times appears in stallions, which may be termed gonor- 
rhea, being a catarrhal inflammation of the urethra; as 
the disease can be transmitted to the mare or vice versa 



266 Veterinary Elements. 

its recognition is important. The causes are various, 
service of mares too soon after foaling, or if suffering from 
vaginal discbarges. The swelling of the genitals, erup- 
tion of blisters on the parts with accompanying soreness, 
and sometimes discbarge of pus from the urethra render 
its detection easy. The use of a mild antiseptic followed 
by some salve such as oxide of zinc ointment will usually 
overcome the trouble; it is advisable to lay the stallion 
off for a week or ten days. The stud- groom should not 
allow service to any mare with a discharge from the 
genitals. 

Calf cholera or dysentery is a contagious fatal disease 
of calves due to a germ, affecting them the first few 
days after birth. The calf soon loses its desire to suck, 
is restless and groans, the excrement at first yellow, be- 
comes white, thin and ill-smelling, sometimes being 
streaked with curdled milk or blood, later convulsions 
and the continual flow of feces and saliva and possibly 
death in twenty-four hours; the usual duration of the 
disease being one to three days; the rate of mortality is 
very high — SO to 100 per cent. Scours due to errors 
in diet, is of a milder character and does not occur 
so soon after birth and is non-contagious. The 
liberal use of antiseptics is the cardinal feature of the 
preventive treatment, the udder, should be purified, the 
vagina be washed with an antiseptic fluid, and pregnant 
cows removed before calving from an infected shed to a 
clean or disinfected one. For the calves, creolin, one 
to two drams in two ounces of castor oil is very useful 
in the earlier stages, a powder of opium, catechu, and 
tannic acid of each thirty grains repeated at eight-hour 



Contagious Diseases and Their Suppression. 267 

intervals for three doses is also useful. The removal of 
the calf at birth and its thorough disinfection will tend 
to prevent this fatal disease. The following powder is 
highly thought of by some veterinarians: 

Powdered rhubarb root 1\ drams. 

Powdered opium \ dram. 

Powdered carbonate of magnesia \ dram. 

Give as one dose in a couple of ounces of brandy and 
white of egg. 

Cow pox is of interest to the general public owing to 
the adoption of .Jenner's vaccination of human beings 
with the lymph of cow pox as a protection against small 
pox. The stockman is also interested from the fact of 
its contagious nature, often rendering cows extremely 
hard to milk, due to the soreness of the teats, and its caus- 
ing a diminished milk supply. The eruption is usually 
confined to the udder and teats, the latter show pink 
pimples, which later become reddish vesicles; as many 
as twenty or thirty may be present, varying in size 
from a lentil to a pea. The vesicles vary in color ac- 
cording to the skin, they have a depression in their 
centers, are circular'in shape on the udder, elliptical on 
the teats; they mature about the tenth day and then a 
discharge is given off; the vesicles dry up into a dark 
brown crust, which, in four days, falls off. The disease 
takes about three weeks to run its course in an animal; 
it is often carried from one cow to another by the milk- 
ers, some of whom at times become infected. The dis- 
ease usually follows a favorable course, hence treatment 
is rarely necessary; some mild salve, carbolic or borated 
vaseline will be all that is necessary. The disease will, 



268 Veterinary Elements. 

as a rule, go through the entire herd, which should on 
no account be exposed to bad weather during the attack ; 
owing to its contagious nature, either separate milkers 
should be provided, or else the hands should be disin- 
fected before milking a second or more cows, the disin- 
fection being performed as each cow is milked. 

Canker sore mouth of young pigs is a very serious dis- 
ease, occurring from the time of birth until a few weeks 
old, and unless attended to is either invariably fatal or 
stunts the pigs' growth permanently. The disease will 
attack litter after litter, and would thus seem to be con- 
tagious in its nature. Sore mouth, swellings of the jaw 
on which are light brown scabs, which later show deep 
cracks are seen. The scabs and cracks are found on the 
snout extending over the head, and even to the body and 
limbs, in some cases an ulcer will form at the end of the 
snout and eat away part of the nose; in other cases the 
ears may become affected and drop off; dullness, loss of 
power in the hind limbs, a tendency to walk on the fet- 
locks, disinclination to move, and humping the back are 
frequent symptoms; if made to walk will squeal as if in 
pain; the pigs refrain from suckling. The treatment is 
simple and effective if thoroughly done; the young pigs 
should first be attended to by dipping in over the head 
in cither of the following solutions, care being taken not 
to hold them too long under the water and thus drown 
them: 

A. Permanganate of potash 1 ounce. 

Water , i gallon. 

This solution is practically non-poisonous and may be 
used fearlessly. 



Contagious Diseases and Their Suppression. 269 

B. Creolin 1 ounce. 

Water h gallon. 

The treatment should be given three times at intervals 
of two or three days; remove dirt from the snouts of the 
pigs as much as possible, so as to economize in the use of 
the drugs. The sow's udder should be washed a few 
times with one of the solutions; should ulcers form as 
described, touch them with a piece of silver nitrate or 
apply a little butyr of antimony with a small swab. Dis- 
infect the farrowing pens with hot carbolic lime wash. 



CHAPTEE XXII. 

DISINFECTION AND MISCELLANEOUS DISEASES. 

Disinfection of Stables is a very important subject for 
the stockman to understand, as he can by this means do 
more to limit and stamp out contagious diseases than by 
any other method. Carbolic acid, bichloride of mer- 
cury (corrosive sublimate), chloride of zinc, and numer- 
ous other antiseptics, including creolin, chloronaphtho- 
leum, germol, zenoleum may be used for this purpose. 
Empty the stables, then burn up all bedding used in the 
infected barn. Sprinkle the floors with sawdust which has 
been soaked with a ten per cent, solution of carbolic acid, or 
a 1.1000 solution of corrosive sublimate, letting it remain 
for twenty-four hours, then rake up and place with the 
manure. Sprinkle the floor with chloride of lime or 
some of the antiseptics mentioned; flush out the drains 
with the same antiseptics. Take a ten per cent, solu- 
tion of hot soft soap and water and scrub out stalls, man- 
gers, feed boxes, etc. , when dry use a knapsack sprayer 
and apply hot carbolic whitewash (crude carbolic enough 
to make a three to five per cent, solution) over the walls 
and ceiling. Sulphur is sometimes burned in stables, for 
which purpose one pound of sulphur is needed to every 
thousand cubic feet. 

Harness should be washed with a hot soap solution 
and oiled afterward. Disinfection is rendered much 
easier if the floors of the stables are of cement and the 



Disinfection and Miscellaneous Diseases. 271 

fittings of iron. After the disinfection allow lots of light 
and pure air to enter, and do not allow piles of manure, 
etc., to accumulate in the stable. 

Thumps in pigs is a disease mainly due to over- 
feeding and is often a serious trouble with the 
young pigs, the cause being known, the treat- 
ment will be to reduce the feed and give the 
sow or the pigs a dose of physic, raw linseed oil 
or epsom salts. 

Rheumatism in pigs is common in damp stables, 
may be due to pigs burrowing in hot manure in 
winter time and then becoming exposed to the 
cold weather. Removal of the causes, a mild 
physic and five grains of salol in the feed twice 
daily will help overcome the trouble, if the 
joints are swollen a liniment will be needed. 

Chapped Teats occur in cows from exposure, 
standing in muddy places, etc., and are best 
treated by the use of oxide of zinc ointment, car- 
bolic salve orcamphor ice. 

Obstructions in the teats or milk ducts gen- 
erally require an operation which should be per- 
formed when the cow is dry; in some cases the 
closure of the teat is due to stricture, in which 
case the metal dilator and plug should be used, 
care being taken to always have those instru- 
ments perfectly clean. 

Warts are more or less common on all classes 
of stock, and if flat on the skin may be touched 
with strong acetic acid or silver nitrate (lunar 

TEAT ° 

dilator, caustic), if they have a long neck, ahorse hair 



272 Veterinary Elements. 

or fine twine may be tied around the base when they will 
eventually drop off. 




I'RINARY AND REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS OF THE HEN. 

a, ovary; b, infundibular portion of oviduct; e, portion of oviduct 
which secretes the albumen; e', uterus or shell forming portion; '/, intes- 
tine; d', cloaca: e', e', opening of the ureters: e", opening of oviduct; c'", 
depression corresponding to the opening of atrophied oviduct; </. bursa of 
Fabricius; /,/,/, kidney divided into three lobes; c, right ureter. 



Disinfection and Miscellaneous Diseases. 



273 



Indigestion and constipation in pigs are due to errors in 
diet and lack of exercise, in such cases five grains of 
calomel in a piece of fat 
pork given to a pig will 
tend to overcome the 
trouble, a laxative of raw 
linseed oil or epsom salts in 
milk are also useful, the 
cause must be removed; in 
this disease the pigs stag- 
ger around, refuse food, per 
haps vomit, and may show 
signs of pain. 

Bumble foot in poultry is 
due to too high roosts, caus- 
ing bruising of the feet and 
the formation of an abscess. 
Bathe in hot water, lance 
and let out the pus, and 
remove the cause. 

Roup is a contagious dis- 
ease of poultry resembling 
the early stages of a severe 
cold, the discharge being 

KEPRODUCTIVE ORGAX8 «.F 1HK COCK. offensive I S0 late all af- 

a, a, testicles; 6, b, epididymus; <\ ■ - < 
c, vas deferens; d, cloaca; d>, bursa tected birds, kill Or USe 
of Fabricius; e, e, papilla? through ant itoxin. Disinfect the 
which tbe vas deferens open; /, mar- 
gin of anus. hen houses thoroughly. 

The following will aid in determining what makes a 
fowl sick, together with brief notes on treatment: 

18 




274 Veterinary Elements. 

Cholera — Overcrowding, filth, impure water and feed. 
Use a little baking soda, alum or carbolic acid 30 drops 
to one quart of the drinking water, disinfect the runs 
with lime, also the house. 

Canker— Dampness and filth. Powder mouth and 
throat with burnt alum, disinfect the quarters. 

Apoplexy — Over-feeding and lack of exercise. Give 
a teaspoonful of castor oil, vegetable diet, cold water to 
head. 

Soft shells — Over- feeding or lack of lime in the food. 
Give oyster shells, cut bone, and a vegetable diet. 

Leg weakness — In -breeding and over-feeding, lack of 
bone forming food and grit. Give one grain of quinine 
daily, grit, vegetable diet, and cut bone. 

Sore eyes and pip — Damp houses. 

Diarrhoea — Damp houses, filthy runs and houses, bad 
feeding. The same treatment as for cholera. 

Crop-bound — Over-feeding and lack of grit. Give cas- 
tor oil and milk and knead carefully. 

Unless your poultry are valuable stock, kill at once if 
diseased, doctoring is expensive in time and money. 



CHAPTEK XXIII. 

EXAMINATION OF A HORSE FOR SOUNDNESS. 

The detection of unsoundnesses in horses calls for the 
exercise of the stockman's powers of observation: 
to render it more easy, a routine method is usually 
followed by horsemen and veterinarians; especially 
when one is buying is it well to notice the demeanor of 
the horse in the stable, method of tying, etc., looking 
out for neck straps, etc., stand him from side to side in 
the stall, then have him brought out on to hard ground, 
have him trotted or galloped and walked so that his wind 
may be examined, if a heavy horse a pull at a heavy 
load may be given, notice his way of going aud whether 
he stands and walks squarely. His wind being satisfac- 
tory and no lameness having been shown, the examiner 
can start to make the examination of the mouth, for the 
age, decayed teeth, signs of cribbing or discharges from 
the nostrils, may take the pulse, the disposition of the 
horse will also be noted by the movement of the ears, 
etc. The eyes are then looked at as to whether the ani- 
mal is blind, minus an eye or suffering from some eye 
disease at the time; going to the off side feel between the 
jaws for glandular enlargements, pass the right hand up 
over the poll, being on the lookout for abscesses (poll 
evil) there, split ears, etc., coming down the side of the 
neck be sure to feel under the mane, if on that side; 
raise the jugular vein, then rjass the hand over the with- 



27»i Veterinary Elements. 

ers for fistula, down over the shoulder, noting if the mus- 
cles of the part are wasted or not, over the elbow look- 
ing out for shoeboil; then with the flat of the right hand 
(which has been used all along) feel the cannons, look- 
ing out for splints, handle the tendons, which should be 
hard or cordy as it is often termed, look for puffs and in 
heavy horses feel down into the feather for grease, etc. ; 
for scars from nerving, windgalls, ringbone; lift the foot, 
by pinching with right hand just above the fetlock and. 
holding it up with the left hand at the toe, note the sole, 
frog, etc., looking out for corns, thrush and dropped 
sole, the shoe should be off to make a thorough examina- 
tion; examine the coronet for quittors and the walls for 
saudcracks, which may have been filled with tar; note 
also whether the heels are contracted; let the foot go, 
turn with face to the front of the horse and with the palm 
of the left hand examine for sore shoulders and sitfasts, 
down the front of the leg, over the knee for broken 
knees, a very bad sign in saddlers; down the front of the 
cannon, pastern and hoof looking for the ringed appear- 
ance there, then the cartilages should be examined for 
sidebone. When examining the limbs do not sit down, 
keep the knees stiff and bend the back, it looks horse- 
manlike and one is not so likely to get stepped on. Turn 
again with the head to the horse's flank and with the 
right hand resume the examination of the body, looking 
out for saddle galls, broken ribs, etc., if a gelding or 
stallion note the condition of the scrotum, note the point 
of the hip, and step back a few paces behind the horse, 
noting any lowering of a hip from the level of its fellow, 
then step to one side level with the tail, noting any flat- 



Examination of a Horse for Soundness. 277 

tening in the back line of the rump, a view of the back- 
line of the hock can be got at that time, then with a 
word to the horse walk up, seize the tail and lift it, not- 
ing the amount of resistance offered, whether the anus is 
tight, whether any warts, etc., are present; the end of 
the bone might be looked at to determine whether re- 
cently docked or not; the examination of the hind leg 
may then be proceeded with. Standing with one's back 
to the animal's head and to one side of the limb, with 
the right hand run down the back line of the leg looking 
out for thoroughpins, curbs, grease, laceration of the 
tendons, splints, windgalls and ringbones. The hind 
foot may be lifted if desired to examine for thrush; fac- 
ing about the left hand runs down the leg from the stifle 
noting its condition, then down over the hock feeling for 
bog spavins, jacks (bone spavin), down the cannon to 
the fetlock for interfering scars, then to the foot. Going 
to the front of the horse, the near side is gone over in a 
similar manner, no sitting down by the examiner can be 
tolerated. The manual work being done, back the horse 
several paces and note the way he lifts his hind legs for 
symptoms of stringhalt, also turn him around short a few 
times; that done, go ahead of the horse and stand a little 
in front of and to each side of the shoulders, and com- 
pare the hocks. The examination may then be consid- 
ered fairly complete. 



UNSOUNDNESSES THAT SHOULD DISQUALIFY 
FROM BREEDINO. 

Disqualifications from breeding! The following un- 
soundnesses should bar males and females being used for 
breeding purposes: 

Bogspavin and Thoroughpin, unsatisfactory to treat, and 
are indications of weakness of the parts affected. 

Bone spavin is very readily transmitted, hence should 
be considered as a bar sinister in the heraldry (pedigree) 
of any horse. 

Broken wind or Heaves, the tendency to which is fre- 
quently transmitted. 

Cataract and Moon Blindness (periodic opthalmia) are 
diseases that have an hereditary tendency, consequently 
if the offspring are to be sound, the parents should be 
entirely free of these eye diseases. 

Curb, and curby legs might be included, are doubly 
undesirable, the conformation being weak and also poor 
in appearance. 

Goitre in sheep, the reasons for which are mentioned 
in Part I. 

Ringbone is a grave unsoundness in a working animal 
and as it is inherited by the progeny of animals so af- 
fected, becomes at once prohibitive in breeding stock. 

Roaring, especially in light horses, renders them unfit 
for fast or severe exertion. Ormonde, the great thor- 



Unsoundnesses That Should Disqualify From Breeding. 279 

oughbred, was a roarer and transmitted it to Ms pro- 
geny, hence his exile to South America. 

Shelly, brittle feet or shallow weak feet are bad faults 
in breeding animals, especially so as the latter class of 
feet are very liable to founder (laminitis). 

Sidebones, the common unsoundness in heavy horses, 
practically incurable, breeding from such animals should 
be vetoed. 

Splints are not desirable, being indicative of a ten- 
dency to throw out bony material or undue porosity of 
bone. 

Viciousness, such as kicking, biting, switching and 
other- signs of an irritable nature, even if exhibited in 
cattle, should render the stockman slow to utilize such 
for breeding purposes. Animals with such natures are 
rarely as thrifty as the quieter beast, and are often quite 
dangerous, which may be partially overcome in cattle 
by dehorning, the stockman's first duty is to himself in 
this respect, foolhardiness being neither a desirable nor 
necessary attribute. 

Defects of conformation, while not necessarily unsound- 
nesses, should be avoided in the breeding animal ; knock 
knees, in or out turned toes, parrot mouth, narrow or 
shallow chest, light middle, roach backs, ewe necks, 
contracted feet, coarse joints, hollow backs, small eyes, 
a rough, bare, prominent loin, peaked (narrow) hind 
quarters, thin stines, are a few undesirable qualities to 
propagate. 



INDEX. 



The numbers refer to page 



Abortion, contagious, 177, 261. 

Absorption, 28, 50. 

Acetic acid, 130. 

Aconite, dangerous to use, 136. 

Actinomycosis, 25!>. 

Afterbirth, retention of the, 166. 

Age of animals determined bs~ the 
teeth, 35, 36. 

Agriculturist, success as an, 1. 

Air, respired, 59; fresh, 59, 60; tonic 
effects of fresh, 126, 147. 

Aloes, actions and uses of, 130. 

Ammonia, actions and uses of, 132. 

Anatomy, definition of, 1; value of 
a knowledge of, 2. 

Anodynes, 127. 

Anthelmintics, what are, 127. 

Anthrax, 259. 

Antiseptics, 128. 

Apoplexy, parturient, 172; of fowls, 
274. 

Arm and forearm, locations of, 14. 

Arsenic, dangers in the use of, 136. 

Arteries, construction of, 00; bleed- 
ing from, 92; distribution of, 90; 
functions of, 8ii. 

Azoturia, 211. 

Back, the bones of the, 8. 

Backraking, 154. 

Bacteria in the teats, 85. 

Bandaging, 155. 

Big leg, 210. 

Bile, functions of, 48. 

Blackleg, 255. 

Black teeth in pigs, 221. 

Bladder, the urinary, 57. 

Bleeding, where performed, 92; 

when useful, 69, 199; how stopped, 

187. 



Blindness, indications of, 101. 

Blistering, 127, 143. 

Bloating in sheep and cattle, 204; 
prevention of, 205; in horses, 202. 

Blood, 86; the, pump; 86; clots and 
corpuscles, 88; proportion of cor- 
puscles, 88, 89; course of the, 90. 

Bluestone, actions and uses, 131. 

Bog spavin, 278. 

Bones, classes of, 7; breakages in 
young and old, 3: quality and 
lightness of, 4; functions of, 5; flat 
and round, 5; number of, in ani- 
mals, 6. 

Bone spavin, 278. 

Bots, 248. 

Brain, the, 95; intelligence and, de- 
velopment, 97. 

Bran mash, preparation of a, 153. 

Breathing, 150; organs of, 60, 61. 

Breeding, of animals, 64; artificial, 
as, 179; diseases, results of, 159; 
and immaturity, 169; male organs 
of, 64; female organs of, 66. 

Brisket, location of, 12. 

Broken wind, 213, 278. 

Bumble foot in poultry, 274. 

Buttock, the croup or, 10; the point 
of, 17. 

Bureau of Animal Industry, 257. 

Bursa?, 27. 

Calf cholera, 266. 

Canker, sore mouth of pigs, 268; of 

poultry, 274. 
Capillaries, 92. 
Capped hock, 241. 
Capsular ligaments, 13. 
Capsule method of breeding, 68, 179. 
Carbolic acid, 135. 



282 



Veterinary Elements. 



Carbon di-oxide, poisonous effects 
of, 59. 

Carrying the young, (59. 

Cartilage, 2, 15. 

Casting the withers, 108. 

Castration, 193; essentials to success 
in, 194; of bulls, 195; of sheep, 195. 

Cataract, 2T8. 

Cattle, pasturing after sheep, 30. 

Cell, the, 2. 

Cellulose, digestion of, 50. 

Chapped teats, 271. 

Chest, boundaries of, 12; farm medi- 
cine, 130. 

Chestnuts of horses, 105. 

Chewing, time taken in, 4li. 

Choking in cattle, 206; in horses, 207. 

Chyle, 52. 

Circulation, the, 90. 

Clap in stallions, 265, 

Clipping horses, 157. 

Clotting of blood, 87. 

Cock, reproductive organs of the, 
273. 

Coffin .joint, 15, 230, lameness, 230. 

Colic, 202; treatment of, 201. 

Collar galls, 225. 

Colostrum, S4. 

Conformation, defects of, 279. 

Constipation, 175; in pigs, 273. 

< 'on tagious abortion, 261. 

Contagious diseases, 253. 

Contagious eye disease, 261. 

Contracted feet, causes of, 116. 

Copperas, actions and uses of, 131. 

Corns, 116, 233. 

Corrosive sublimate. 125. 

Cotyledons, 66, 167. 

Coupling, the, 12. 

Cow pox, 267. 

Creolin, action and uses of, 131. 

Cribbing, 220. 

Croup, the, 10. 

Cud, giving a, 41. 

Curb, 239, 27S. 

Curby legs, 19, 2T8. 

Dairy, cow, wedge form in the, 13. 
Dam, treatment of, after delivery, 



Deafness, a cause of, 102. 

Defecation, 54. 

Dehorning, 190; clippers, 191. 

Determining the age, 200. 

Diagram of the teeth, 35. 

Digestive system, the, 28. 

Discharges from the nostrils, 220. 

Diseases, due to mistakes in feed- 
ing, 202; of germ origin, 253; of the 
feet, 222; of the teeth, 217; of 
poultry, 274; results of breeding, 
166; of the newborn, 175. 

Disinfection of stables, 270. 

Distemper oi colts, 263. 

Docking, reasons for, 10; operation 
of, 200. 

Dose table and rules, 129. 

Down in the hip, 16, 235. 

Drenching, dangers in, 61, 142; 
horses, 139; cattle, 141; sheep, 141; 
swine, 142. 

Dropping after calving, 174. 

Dysentery, calf, 266. 

Ear, desirable style of, 101. 

Egg, formation and fertilization of, 
73. 

Epsom salts, actions and uses, 132. 

Ergots, in horses, 105. 

Escutcheon in cows, 103. 

Essentials, to success as a stock- 
man, 1; in mating, 69; in castra- 
tion, 194. 

Evolution and livestock. ii. 

Ewes, flushing of, 69; number to a 
ram, 71; tagging of, ISO. 

Examination of a horse, 27~>. 

Excrement of poultry, 72. 

Excretion, 28, 53. 

Exercise, need of, 152, 211. 

Extension and flexion, 13. 

Eye, construction of, 98; scums (?) 
on the, 99; the haw of the, LOO; a 
good, 101; diseases of the, 261, 278. 

Failure to breed and its causes, 17s. 
Febrifuges. 129. 
Feces, the, or dung, 53. 
Feeding, horses, 4(i; hay, 214: sick 
stock, L53. 



Index. 



283 



Feet, the, 106; expansion of. 110; 
care of, 111; examining, 113, 114, 
276; contracted, 116. 

Fetlock, the, 15. 

Figging, a barbarous practice, 55. 

Flexion and extension, 13. 

Flushing, ewes, 69; cows, 168. 

Foals, percentage of, 170. 

Food, how taken by animals, 29; 
preparatory work with, 28; dis- 
posal of waste from the, 28. 

Foot and Limb troubles, 222. 

Footrot in cattle and sheep, 234. 

Forging, 114. 

Founder, 207; symptoms of, 208; in 
cattle and sheep, 209. 

Fractures, 189; method of union of, 
189. 

Gait and slope of shoulders, 13. 
(Target, 170. 
Gastric juice, 45. 
Gestation in animals, 69. 
Ginger, actions and uses of, 135. 
Glanders and farcy, 255. 
Goitre in sheep, 47, 278. 
Gonorrhoea in stallions, 265. 
Grub in the head, 246. 

Hair, 103; care of the, 105. 

Hamstring, 26. 

Handling sheep, 184. 

Hatching or incubating tempera- 
ture, 73. 

Hay, overfeeding with, 214. 

Hay tea, 154. 

Head, sinuses of the, 7. 

Heart, the, 86, 89. 

Heat in animals, 67, 68. 

Heaves, 51, 62; causes and treatmeut 
of, 213. 

Heifers, breeding of, 71. 

Hen, urinary and reproductive 
organs of the, 272; diseases of the, 
273, 274. 

Histology, definition of, 2. 

Hocks, coarse, 19; curby, 239; dis- 
eases of the, 236, 237, 238, 239, 240. 

Hog cholera, 256. 

Hoof, the, 106; development of the, 



109; ointments, 109; a good, 111; 

care of the, 114. 
Hooks or hips, 16. 
Horns, the, 105, removal of the, 190. 
Horn fly of cattle, 247. 
Horses, giving medicine to, 139; 

throwing, 182. 

Incubation of poultry, 73. 

Indigestion in pigs, 273. 

Inflammation, signs of, 157. 

Influenza, 261. 

Insertions of muscles, 22. 

Intelligence and brain develop- 
ment, 97. 

Interfering, 97. 

Intestines, the small, 47; digestion 
in the small, 50; the large, 51. 

Joints, formation of, 9, 7, 11; some 

diseases of, 177, 228, 230, 236. 
Joint oil, where found, 27. 

Kerosene, actions and uses, 134. 
Kicking, horses. 118. 
Kidneys, the work of the, 55, 50. 
Knee, formation of, 14. 

Lacteals, location of the, 51. 
Lambs, goitre and, 47; constipation 

in, 174; docking, 10, 200; castrating, 

195. 
Lameness, detection of, 27, 222. 
Lampas, danger of lancing, 31; 

tooth troubles shown by, 217. 
Larynx, or voice box, 61; roaring 

and the, 61. 
Lateral cartilages, the, 106; diseases 

of the, 228. 
Laudanum, action and uses of, 133. 
Laxatives, 127. 
Lice, 244; poultry, 247. 
Ligaments, 7. 

Limbs, the fore, 12; the hind, 16. 
Lime water and its uses, 132. 
Linseed, oil, 133; meal in condition 

powders, 133. 
Listerian treatment of wounds, 185. 
Liver, the work of the, 48. 
Lockjaw, 257. 



284 



I 'eterinary Elements. 



Loins, the, !i; well covered, 10; mus- 
cles of the, IS, 

Lumpyjaw, 259. 

Lungs, the, 62; the work of the, 53. 

Lymphangitis, 210. 

Lymphatic nodes, 51, 93; cheesiness 
of, 124. 

Maggots on sheep, 246. 

Mange, 248. 

Mares, breeding of, 70. 

Mastication, 28, 30,32. 

Mating, when done, 67; condition at 
time of, 69; of poultry, 74. 

Meat, valuable cuts of, 25; tough- 
ness of, shown by, 21. 

Meconium, the, S4. 

Medicines, simple farm, 125; the 
chest, 129; measuring, 130; giving, 
138; how taken into the system, 
138. 

Milk, when secreted, 76, SO;' holding 
up, S3; veins and wells, 80, 82; com- 
position of, S3; first milk, 84; hard 
to, 77; fever, 172; tube, 172; glands 
and their functions, 76. 

Milt, the, or spleen, 51. 

Mouth, the, 30; contents of, 31, 32; 
examining a horse's, 36; examin- 
ing a sheep's, 37; grinding food in, 
:;7. 

Mucous membranes, 29; in disease, 
150; work of, 20. 

Muscles, contraction of, 21; factors 
producing hard, 24 

Mustard, application of, 154. 

Nasal chambers, the, 60. 

Natural science study, 1. 

Navel-ill, 177. 

Navicular disease, 230. 

Neck, bones of the, S; ligament of 
the, 9. 

Nerve, the work of a, 94; construc- 
tion of a, 95. 

Nerving, a result of, 95. 

Newborn, attention to the, hit. 

Nitre, sweet, actions and uses of, 
133. 

Nursing, of animals, 145. 



obstetrics, 159. 

Obstructions in the teats, 271 . 

Oestrum, 67. 

Offal, reduction of, 6. 

Operations, common farm, 181. 

Origins of muscle, 22. 

Oxygen, necessity for, 59. 

Pancreas, functions and ferments 
of the, 49. 

Paralysis, 96; bowels, 42; purgatives 
and* bowels, 30; of hind quarters, 
212. 

Parasites, external, 242; internal, 
248. 

Parturient apoplexy, 172. 

Parturition, 161. 

Pastern, the, 15. 

Pathology, definition of, 1. 

Paunchiness, one cause of, 51. 

Pelvis, the, 16; arch ot the, 10. 

Penis, the, 66. 

Pepsin, 50. 

Peptones, 46, 47. 

Peristalsis, 58. 

Pigs, black teeth in, 34; length of 
pregnancy of, 69; breeding of, 68, 
72; giving medicine to, 142; re- 
straining for operations, is;',. 

Pinkeye, in horses, so called of catr 
tie, 261. 

Pin worms, 249. 

Pleura, the, in health and disease, 
68. 

Pointing, 223. 

Points of animals, 118, 119, 120. 

Poisons and antidotes, 135. 

Poll, location of the, 8; diseases of 
the, 91. 

Post-mortems, 121. 

Poultices, 135. 

Poultry, digestion in, 72; mating of, 
73; tonic for, 126; lice on. 246; re- 
productive organs of, 72, 272: ex- 
crement of, 72. 

Pregnancy, 159. 

Prehension, 28, 30. 

Pricks in shoeing, 231. 

Puberty, 67. 

Pulse rates, 149. 



Index. 



285 



Purgatives, 12(5, 127; in pregnancy, 
lfiO. 

Quality, of bone, 40; indications of, 

104. 
Quarters, fore, 12; hind, 16; of the 

feet, 106. 
Quarter ill or blackleg, 255. 
Quinine, 135. 

Rectum, the, 54. 

Reflex action, 39. 

Reproduction, phases of, 60; in ani- 
mals, 67; in poultry, 72. 

Respiration, 59. 

Respired air, 59. 

Retention of the afterbirth, 167. 

Rheumatism in pigs, 271. 

Ribs, relation of the, to the con- 
stitution, 11. 

Ridgling, or original, cryptorchid, 
65. 

Ringbones, 19, 228, 27S. 

Ringworm, 245. 

Roaring, 61, 278. 

Round worms, 249. 

Rudimentaries, the, 78. 

Rumination, 41. 43; stoppage of, 42. 

Rump, the, 10; muscles of the, 25. 

Ruptures, 197; in entires and geld- 
ings, 198. 

Rut or heat, 67. 

Sac, the, or bag, 64. 

Salivary glands, 38; secretion of the, 

39, the abdominal, 49. 
Salt, 152. 
Scab, 241. 
Schirrus coi-d, 198. 
Schmidt's treatment for milk fever, 

173. 
Scours in calves, 176. 
Scratches, 227. 
Scrotum, the, 64. 
Sebaceous glands, the, 58. 
Secretion, 28, 44. 
Securing animals for operations, 

181. 182. 
Semen, or sperm, 66. 
Serous membranes, 29. 
Sheath, foul, 65; sore, 216. 



Sheep, giving medicines to, 141, 

handling, 184. 
Shelly feet, 229. 
Shoe, types of, 115; pricks, 231. 
Shoeboil, location of, 14; causes of, 

241. 
Shoeing, objects of, 112; the, smith 

and owner, 113; a kicker, 118. 
Shoulderslip, 275. 
Show ring tactics, some, 85, 107. 
Sickstall, the, 145. 
Sidebones, 15, 228, 279. 
Skeleton, the, construction of the, 

3; region of the, 6. 
Skin, the, handling qualities of, 102. 
Slabsided animals, 11. 
Sole, the, 108. 
Sore sheaths in steers and wethers, 

65, 215. 
Sore shoulders, 225. 
Soundness, examination for, 275. 
Spavin, location of, 18; kinds of' 

236; bone, 236; bog, 238; test, 234; 

truss for bog, 239. 
Speed and thick skin, 28. 
Spinal cord, the, 96. 
Spinal disease, so-called, 212. 
Spleen, the, or milt, 51. 
Splints, 15, 51, 226, 278. 
Stallions, use of, 70; per cent, of 

foals, 70. 
Sterility, in males, 178; in females, 

179. 
Stifle, location of, 17; out (disloca- 
tion of), 235. 
Stimulants, 126. 
Stomach, the, 40; of horse, 40, 250; 

pigs, 40; ruminants, 251; capacity 

of, 41; worms, 252. 
Strangles, 263. 
Stringhalt, 240. 
Structures of the foot, 230. 
Sulphur, 134. 

Summer sores in horses, 247. 
Suspensory ligaments, 23. 
Swallowing, 39. 
Sweat glands, the, 58. 
Sweat breads, the 48, 
Swine plague, 257. 
Swirls, 102. 



286 



Veterinary Elements. 



Tagging, necessity for, in sheep, 180. 

Tail, removal of the, 101. 

Tapeworms, 252. 

Tapping the paunch, 102. 

Tar, uses for, 134. 

Teeth, the, 32; kind of, 33; cusps of, 
33; number of, 34; diagram of, 35; 
diseases of the, 217; yearly ex- 
amination of, necessary, 218; wolf, 
219; decayed, 21i); black teeth, 221. 

Telling the age, 35; of a sheep, 200. 

Tetanus, 257. 

Texas fever, 258. 

Thermometer, the clinical, 149. 

Throwing, horses, 182; cattle, 183; 
sheep, 183. 184. 

Thrush, 22!). 
Thumps in pigs, 271. 

Thurl, the, or thigh joint, 17. 

Thyroid, the, glands, 47. 

Tissues, how formed, 21. 

Tone, indications of, 54. 

Tonics, 120. 

Trachea, the, 62. 

Trypsin, 50. 

Tuberculin test, the, 254. 

Tuberculosis, 253. 

Turpentine, actions and uses, 134. 

Udder, the, 70; shape of, 77; meati- 
ness of, 77; functions of ,79; fun- 
nel-shaped, SI, blood vessels of, 81. 

Unsoundnesses, in horses, 275; dis- 
qualifying from breeding, 27S. 

Ureters, the, 57. 

Urethra, the, 50; of ruminant, 57. 

Urine, the, 56. 

Uterus, the; of the mare, 02, of the 
cow, 03; inversion of, 168. 



Vaccine, blackleg, 2.j">. 

Vagina, the, 07. 

Valuable cuts of meat, where 

found, 25. 
Veins, 92, milk, 81. 
Ventilation, 147. 
Yertabne, the, s. 
Vesicants, 127. 

Viciousness, a bar to breeding, 279. 
Villi, intestinal, 30; uterine, 02. 
Vomiting in horses, 44. 
Vulva, 07. 

Wall, of the foot, IOC 

Warts, treatment of, 271. 

Washing, the limbs, 150. 

Watering horses, 151. 

Water trouble in rams and wethers, 
215. 

Weaning pigs and lambs, 17<>. 

Weed, 210. 

White Line, the, 108. 

White markings, distinction of, 104. 

Windpipe, the, 62. 

Windsucking, 220. 

Withers, formation of the, 9; cast- 
ing of the, 16S. 

Wolfteeth, 6, 219. 

Womb, the, 60; inversion of, 10S. 

Wool and yolk, 58. 

Worm, the, of rams, 60. 

Worms, in horses, 248, 249. 

Wounds, healing of, 183, general 
treatment of, 187. 

Yelk of eggs, 72. 
Yolk in wool, 58. 

Zoology, 1. 



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